<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[SP Historian ]]></title><description><![CDATA[The past of the Greeks, Romans, Carthaginians and many other ancient peoples, by a historian and writer / El pasado de griegos, romanos, cartagineses y muchos otros pueblos de la Antigüedad, por un historiador y escritor.
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]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ALdn!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5f7dd2ee-5ac8-4cd9-8771-9994baeb431f_928x928.png</url><title>SP Historian </title><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Sat, 20 Jun 2026 07:19:42 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[sebastianpanatt@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[sebastianpanatt@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[sebastianpanatt@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[sebastianpanatt@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[The Battle of Alalia]]></title><description><![CDATA[The Cadmean victory of the Phocaean Greeks that laid the foundations of the Carthaginian empire.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-battle-of-alalia</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-battle-of-alalia</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 13 Jun 2026 08:47:21 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Around 537 BC, an allied fleet of Carthaginians and Etruscans from the city of Caere sailed to Corsica with the intention of expelling from the island the Greek colonists from Phocaea who had founded a new colony: Alalia. Herodotus recounts that the Greeks were victorious, but that this was a Cadmean victory, one that had major implications for the geopolitical prospects of the defeated: with Alalia, the foundations of the Carthaginian empire began to take root.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/la-batalla-de-alalia?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic" width="768" height="557" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Illustration of the Battle of Alalia, by Giuseppe Rava. It depicts a Phocaean bireme ramming a lighter Etruscan vessel.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>The Battle of Alalia is one of those historical conflicts that sometimes go somewhat unnoticed, but its consequences reveal just how significant it was for the geopolitical development of the Mediterranean in antiquity. It was around 537 BC when the naval battle of Alalia took place off the coast of ancient Corsica. Here, the Phocaean Greeks from the colony of Alalia faced off against a fleet composed of an alliance between Carthaginians and Etruscans from the city of Caere, in a battle that, according to Herodotus (<em>Hist</em>. 1. 166), involved a total of nearly one hundred and eighty warships deployed in a clash for control of the western Mediterranean seas and their trade routes.</p><p>First, let&#8217;s look at the context. Alalia was one of a series of Greek colonies founded by the city of Phocaea in the western Mediterranean. The most famous of these settlements was Massalia on the coast of Gaul, founded around 600 BC. This network of colonies competed with the Phoenician cities and ports of western Sicily, Africa, and Iberia for control of land, resources, and sea routes in an increasingly interconnected Mediterranean. By the first half of the 6th century BC, the Phocaeans, hailing from Anatolia, had effectively burst onto the scene with a series of colonies that included Alalia, founded around 565 BC on the northeast coast of Corsica.</p><p>This immediately led to friction with the Phoenician colony of Carthage, which by that time was beginning to project its power and influence over the other Phoenician&#8212;or Punic&#8212;colonies in the western Mediterranean, as well as with the Etruscan city of Caere. According to Herodotus, the event that triggered the war was the acts of piracy committed by the inhabitants of Alalia (<em>Hist.</em> 1. 166).</p><p>Now, these acts of piracy took place within a context of economic competition driven by colonization and control of maritime routes, which were crucial to the geopolitical development of a region such as the Mediterranean. In that context, the economic and demographic pressure on the fledgling colonies&#8212;especially those that lacked the stability to become more than mere strategic settlements&#8212;must have been immense. This may explain why the people of Alalia turned to piracy as a means of subsistence, or perhaps&#8212;as they themselves might have seen it&#8212;as a way to eliminate competition for control of the region&#8217;s sea routes, which were crucial to the survival of a colony like Alalia.</p><p>Herodotus recounts that around 545 BC, Alalia received a new influx of settlers from Phocaea, who, refusing to live under Persian rule, abandoned the city when the Persians conquered it under the command of Harpagus (Hist. 1. 164). Phocaea was left deserted, and naturally, its inhabitants chose as their destination the many colonies they had founded in recent decades. A significant influx of these inhabitants was received by Alalia, and this is what leads me to discuss the economic and demographic pressure on the colony, and how this pressure also spilled over into competition for resources and their supply and trade routes, through means such as piracy.</p><p>This led the Carthaginians and the Etruscans of Caere to conclude that they shared a common interest in eliminating the emerging Greek presence in Alalia. Together, they assembled a fleet of 120 warships and sent them to the island of Corsica to eliminate the threat. The Phocaeans met them with a fleet of 60 ships, and the two forces clashed somewhere along the southeastern coast of Corsica.</p><p>Herodotus is brief on the details of the battle, but it appears that the Phocaeans overcame their enemies&#8217; numerical superiority through their skill and experience at sea, managing to sink or capture most of their ships. Even so, as Herodotus states, t<strong>his was a Cadmean victory for the Phocaens of Alalia</strong>, for they lost forty ships in the victory, and the remaining twenty had their rams so badly bent from ramming enemy ships that they were rendered unusable (<em>Hist.</em> 1. 166).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png" width="1456" height="1025" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!c95L!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9a88d8e6-81b4-4e18-9763-bd14e214d7df_2454x1728.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Map showing the presumed site of the Battle of Alalia.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Upon returning to Alalia, the men gathered their families and all the belongings they could carry, and left the colony, heading for southern Italy. That is why Herodotus&#8217; assertion that this was a Cadmean victory for the Phocaeans is so important, as it shows that the cities of Caere and, above all, Carthage, could absorb defeats like this and recover much more quickly than the unstable Phocaean colonies. In the end, it was the losing side that benefited from the battle having taken place, regardless of the outcome, for despite its defeat, it achieved its objective, which was the elimination of the colony of Alalia.</p><p>At the same time, it is clear that the Carthaginians or the Etruscans of Caere would not have been able to achieve their goals if they had faced the Phocaeans on their own. The establishment of an alliance, and the construction and coordination of two fleets belonging to states on different continents&#8212;namely Carthage and Caere&#8212;demonstrates the geopolitical influence both cities were exerting, but especially Carthage, which, rather than being a city focused solely on its own region, looked with broad vision and ambition toward the trade and maritime routes stretching across the Mediterranean.</p><p>Thus, Etruscan-Carthaginian relations were consolidated throughout this century, and this is likely one of the main factors that explains why the fledgling Roman Republic concluded its first international treaty with Carthage just a few decades after the Battle of Alalia, in 509 BC. For Rome, the friendship and recognition of the Carthaginian state were crucial to legitimizing its new government through a senate in the eyes of the Etruscan cities north of the Tiber River.</p><p>This may seem like a significant digression from the main topic, but it illustrates the growing prominence Carthage began to assume during the second half of the 6th century BC, evolving from one of many Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean to the largest and most powerful among them. The treaty with Rome in 509 BC, just over thirty years after the defeat at Alalia, demonstrates that Carthage was a dominant power in the international affairs of the time, and toward which the Etruscan cities were well-disposed due to their commercial interests and political and cultural ties.</p><p>Undoubtedly, the defeat at Alalia must have been humiliating for the Carthaginians who survived and for the city as a whole. This campaign was part of a series of military expeditions aimed at expanding Carthage&#8217;s dominions in its native Africa, as well as ensuring the security of its Phoenician and Greek allies in Sicily. Undoubtedly, this is the century in which Carthage ceased to be just another Phoenician colony, beginning instead to project the Carthaginian as a people with a unique civic identity and, above all, an aristocracy with its own interests that were no longer subject to paying tribute to the mother city of Tyre or the taxes to which they had been subjected until a few decades earlier by the local tribes of Africa.</p><p>The defeat at Alalia was a bitter blow, but it demonstrated that the Carthaginians had the will and the ability to defend their interests and those of the cities under their protection against enemies such as the Greeks. They were also in the midst of an intense colonization of the western Mediterranean, with a particular focus on southern Italy (Magna Graecia) and Sicily, but also on areas such as Cyrenaica in Libya, Marseille in Gaul, and Hemeroscopio in Iberia. Even in defeat, the Carthaginians and Etruscans regained control over the seas between Italy, Sicily, Africa, and the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, which were crucial for the connectivity and security of their economic structures.</p><p>In Carthage, shortly after Alalia, the Magonidae family came to dominate the city&#8217;s politics. Under this family, the city would pursue increasingly aggressive interventionist policies in Sicily, using the eastern tip of the island as its base of operations. There were Phoenician cities there, such as Panormus and Motya, which justified their presence as protectors and mediators in the face of instability among the Greek colonies, which were in a constant state of social upheaval, competing with one another and with the local populations of Sicily for land on which to settle. Many of the Phoenician cities, including Carthage itself, were drawn into military conflicts by allying themselves with one or another Greek city on the island.</p><p>Although the Carthaginians supposedly invaded Sicily for the first time under the command of their alleged king Malco (the subject of my next article) shortly before the Battle of Alalia, it was not until 480 BC&#8212;several decades later&#8212;that Carthage made its first intervention on the island with the aim of establishing a lasting political order, led by the Magonid Hamilcar. This intervention occurred as a result of the Carthaginian Senate&#8217;s (the <em>Adirim</em>) close ties with Anaxilaus, tyrant of Reggio (in southern Italy), and the deposed tyrant of Himera, Terillus, who were at war with the cities of Acragas and Syracuse, two of the island&#8217;s largest Greek colonies.</p><p>From that point on, a new period began in the history of Carthage, one increasingly linked to Sicily, as it came to control much of the island&#8217;s territory and founded cities such as Lilibeo and Terma, among others. This entire process began shortly after the disaster suffered by the Carthaginians and their Etruscan allies from Caere at Alalia. From that point on, Carthage&#8217;s territorial expansion became increasingly real rather than merely virtual, as it gained the capacity to maintain armies operating outside Africa to secure its interests and those of the Phoenician cities under its protection. Thus, following a single defeat, the foundations of a Carthaginian empire began to take shape; in the decades that followed, it would become one of the principal actors in the development of the western Mediterranean in antiquity.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[La batalla de Alalia]]></title><description><![CDATA[La victoria cadmea de los griegos foceos que ciment&#243; las ra&#237;ces del imperio cartagin&#233;s.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-batalla-de-alalia</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-batalla-de-alalia</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 13 Jun 2026 08:45:38 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Alrededor del 537 a. C. una flota aliada de cartagineses y etruscos de la ciudad de Caere naveg&#243; hacia Corsica con la intenci&#243;n de expulsar de la isla a los colonos griegos de Focea que hab&#237;an fundado una nueva colonia: Alalia. Her&#243;doto cuenta que la victoria fue de los griegos, pero que esta fue una victoria cadmea, la cual tuvo grandes implicancias para la proyecci&#243;n geopol&#237;tica de los derrotados: con Alalia, comenzaban a cimentarse las ra&#237;ces de del imperio cartagin&#233;s.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic" width="768" height="557" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:557,&quot;width&quot;:768,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:155860,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/201242657?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5p-H!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F702afba3-7508-4149-ae54-6f93c54c5546_768x557.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Ilustraci&#243;n de la batalla de Alalia, por Giuseppe Rava. Representa a un birreme focense embistiendo una embarcaci&#243;n etrusca m&#225;s ligera.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>La batalla de Alalia es uno de esos enfrentamientos de la historia que a veces pasan un poco desapercibidos, pero en sus consecuencias se puede ver la importancia que tuvo para el desarrollo geopol&#237;tico del Mediterr&#225;neo en la Antig&#252;edad. Era alrededor del 537 a. C. cuando se produjo la batalla naval de Alalia cerca de las costas de la antigua Corsica (la actual isla de C&#243;rcega). Aqu&#237; se enfrentaron los griegos focenses de la colonia de Alalia contra una flota compuesta por una alianza entre cartagineses y etruscos de la ciudad de Caere, en una batalla que seg&#250;n Her&#243;doto (<em>Hist. </em>1. 166), cont&#243; en total con cerca de ciento ochenta buques de guerra desplegados en un choque por el dominio de los mares del Mediterr&#225;neo occidental y sus rutas de comercio.</p><p>Primero vamos al contexto. Alalia fue parte de una serie de colonias griegas fundadas por la ciudad de Focea en el Mediterr&#225;neo occidental. La m&#225;s famosa de estas fundaciones fue la de Massalia en la costa de la Galia, fundada alrededor del 600 a. C. Este sistema de colonias rivalizaba con las ciudades y puertos fenicios de la Sicilia occidental, &#193;frica e Iberia por el control de tierras, recursos y rutas mar&#237;timas en un Mediterr&#225;neo cada vez m&#225;s interconectado. Para la primera mitad del siglo VI a. C. los focences, provenientes de Anatolia, hab&#237;an irrumpido efectivamente en el panorama con una serie de colonias que inclu&#237;an Alalia, fundada alrededor del 565 a. C. en la costa noreste de Corsica.</p><p>Esto trajo fricciones de inmediato con la colonia fenicia de Cartago, que para la &#233;poca comenzaba a proyectar su poder e influencia sobre las dem&#225;s colonias fenicias &#8211;o p&#250;nicas&#8211; del Mediterr&#225;neo occidental, y con la ciudad etrusca de Caere. Seg&#250;n Her&#243;doto, el evento que habr&#237;a gatillado la guerra habr&#237;an sido los actos de pirater&#237;a cometidos por los habitantes de Alalia (<em>Hist. </em>1. 166). </p><p>Ahora, estos actos de pirater&#237;a se insertan en un &#225;mbito de competencia econ&#243;mica a trav&#233;s de la colonizaci&#243;n y el control de rutas mar&#237;timas, cruciales en el desarrollo geopol&#237;tico de un entorno como el del Mediterr&#225;neo. En ese contexto, la presi&#243;n econ&#243;mica y demogr&#225;fica en las incipientes colonias, sobre todo en las que no ten&#237;an la estabilidad suficiente para convertirse en m&#225;s que meros asentamientos estrat&#233;gicos, tiene que haber sido muy grande. Esto puede explicar que los focenses de Alalia hayan recurrido a la pirater&#237;a como un medio de subsistencia, o quiz&#225;s como ellos tambi&#233;n podr&#237;an haberlo visto, como una forma de eliminar la competencia por el control de las rutas mar&#237;timas de la zona, cruciales para la subsistencia de una colonia como Alalia.</p><p>Her&#243;doto cuenta que alrededor del 545 a. C. Alalia recibi&#243; un nuevo flujo de colonos provenientes de Focea, quienes neg&#225;ndose a vivir bajo el dominio persa abandonaron la ciudad cuando estos la conquistaron bajo la direcci&#243;n de Harpago (<em>Hist. </em>1. 164). Focea qued&#243; desierta, y como es natural, sus habitantes escogieron como destino las m&#250;ltiples colonias que hab&#237;an fundado en las &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas. Un flujo importante de estos habitantes fue recibido por Alalia, y esto es lo que me lleva a hablar de la presi&#243;n econ&#243;mica y demogr&#225;fica de la colonia, y c&#243;mo esta tambi&#233;n fue traspasada a la competici&#243;n que hab&#237;a sobre los recursos y sus l&#237;neas de suministro y comercializaci&#243;n, a trav&#233;s de medios como la pirater&#237;a.</p><p>Esto llev&#243; a los cartagineses y los etruscos de Caere a decidir que ten&#237;an intereses comunes al buscar eliminar la incipiente presencia griega en Alalia. Juntos, levantaron una flota de ciento veinte buques de guerra y los enviaron a la isla de Corsica a eliminar la amenaza. Los focenses les salieron al encuentro con una flota de sesenta buques y chocaron en alg&#250;n punto de la costa sureste de Corsica. </p><p>Her&#243;doto es escueto en los detalles de la batalla, pero al parecer los focenses se sobrepusieron a la superioridad num&#233;rica de sus enemigos con su habilidad y experiencia en el mar, logrando hundir o capturar la mayor&#237;a de sus buques. Aun as&#237;, como Her&#243;doto declara, <strong>esta fue una victoria cadmea para los focenses de Alalia</strong>, pues de su flota perdieron cuarenta naves en la victoria y las veinte restante resultaron con sus espolones tan torcidos por las embestidas a las naves enemigas, que quedaron inutilizables (<em>Hist. </em>1<em>. </em>166).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png" width="1456" height="1025" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1025,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:6847852,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/201242657?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RXZu!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcfc37404-9a75-42f7-b23b-92cdc8f9e84f_2454x1728.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Mapa que representa el supuesto lugar de la batalla de Alalia.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Al regresar a Alalia, los hombres tomaron a sus familias y todas las posesiones que pod&#237;an cargar, y abandonaron la colonia con rumbo al sur de Italia. Es por eso que la aseveraci&#243;n de Her&#243;doto de que esta fue una victoria cadmea para los focenses es tan importante, ya que da cuenta de que las ciudades de Caere y principalmente Cartago, pod&#237;an absorber derrotas como esta y recuperarse mucho m&#225;s r&#225;pido que las inestables colonias focenses. Al final, fue el bando perdedor el que se benefici&#243; de que se haya dado la batalla, independiente del resultado, pues a pesar de su derrota logr&#243; su objetivo, el cual era la eliminaci&#243;n de la colonia de Alalia. </p><p>A su vez, es evidente que los cartagineses o los etruscos de Caere no habr&#237;an podido lograr sus objetivos si enfrentaban por s&#237; solos a los focenses. El establecimiento de una alianza, la construcci&#243;n y coordinaci&#243;n de dos flotas de estados en continentes distintos, como lo eran Cartago y Caere, da cuenta de la proyecci&#243;n geopol&#237;tica que estaban teniendo ambas ciudades, pero en especial Cartago, que m&#225;s all&#225; que ser una ciudad centrada en su regi&#243;n, miraba con amplitud y ambici&#243;n hacia las l&#237;neas comerciales y mar&#237;timas que se extend&#237;an por el Mediterr&#225;neo. </p><p>As&#237;, las relaciones etrusco-cartaginesas se consolidaron a lo largo de este siglo, y eso es probablemente uno de los principales factores que &#8211;hablando del rey de Roma&#8211; explican que la incipiente Rep&#250;blica romana haya pactado su primer tratado internacional con Cartago pocas d&#233;cadas despu&#233;s de Alalia, en el 509 a. C. Para Roma, la amistad y reconocimiento del estado cartagin&#233;s era crucial para legitimar su nuevo gobierno a trav&#233;s de un senado ante las ciudades etruscas al norte del r&#237;o T&#237;ber.</p><p>Quiz&#225;s esto parece alejarnos mucho del tema, pero da cuenta del protagonismo que comenzaba a tener Cartago durante la segunda mitad del siglo VI a. C., pasando de ser una de muchas colonias fenicias en el Mediterr&#225;neo occidental, a ser la m&#225;s grande y poderosa de estas. El tratado con Roma del 509 a. C., poco m&#225;s de treinta a&#241;os despu&#233;s de la derrota en Alalia, da cuenta de que Cartago era un estado preponderante en los asuntos internacionales de la &#233;poca, y por el que las ciudades etruscas mostraban una buena predisposici&#243;n debido a sus intereses comerciales y v&#237;nculos pol&#237;ticos y culturales. </p><p>Sin duda la derrota en Alalia debe haber sido humillante para los cartagineses que sobrevivieron y para la ciudad en general. Esta acci&#243;n se enmarca dentro de una serie de campa&#241;as militares destinadas a ampliar los dominios de Cartago en su &#193;frica natal, as&#237; como asegurar la integridad de sus aliados fenicios y griegos en Sicilia. Sin duda este es el siglo en que Cartago deja de ser una colonia fenicia m&#225;s, para comenzar a proyectar al cartagin&#233;s como un ser con una identidad c&#237;vica &#250;nica, y por sobre todo, una aristocracia con intereses propios que ya no quedaban sujeto al pago de tributo a la ciudad madre de Tiro o los impuestos con los que hab&#237;an sido sometidos hasta hac&#237;a unas d&#233;cadas por las tribus locales de &#193;frica. </p><p>La derrota en Alalia fue un golpe muy duro, pero demostr&#243; que los cartagineses ten&#237;an la voluntad y capacidad para defender sus intereses y el de las ciudades acogidas bajo su protecci&#243;n ante enemigos como los griegos. Estos tambi&#233;n se encontraban en medio de una intensa colonizaci&#243;n del Mediterr&#225;neo occidental, con especial inter&#233;s en el sur de Italia (la Magna Grecia) y Sicilia, pero tambi&#233;n en puntos como la Cirenaica en Libia, Marssalia en la Galia, o Hemeroscopio en Iberia. Aun con la derrota, los cartagineses y los etruscos recuperaban el control sobre los mares entre Italia, Sicilia, &#193;frica y las islas de Corsica y Sardinia, los cuales eran cruciales para la conectividad y seguridad de sus estructuras econ&#243;micas.</p><p>En Cartago, poco despu&#233;s de Alalia llegar&#237;a el dominio de los Mag&#243;nidas en la pol&#237;tica de la ciudad. Bajo esta familia, la ciudad llevar&#237;a a cabo pol&#237;ticas de intervenci&#243;n cada vez m&#225;s agresivas en Sicilia utilizando el extremo de la costa oriental como su base de operaciones. Ah&#237; exist&#237;an ciudades fenicias como Panormo y Motya, que justificaban su presencia como protectora y mediadora ante la inestabilidad de las colonias griegas, las cuales estaban en un constante estado de ebullici&#243;n social, compitiendo entre ellas y con las poblaciones locales de Sicilia por tierra en la que asentarse. Muchas de las ciudades fenicias, incluida la propia Cartago, fueron arrastradas a conflictos militares al aliarse con una u otra ciudad griega de la isla.</p><p>Si bien supuestamente la primera vez que los cartagineses invadieron Sicilia fue bajo el mando de su supuesto rey Malco (el protagonista de mi siguiente art&#237;culo) poco antes de la batalla de Alalia, no es hasta el 480 a. C., varias d&#233;cadas despu&#233;s, que se da la primera intervenci&#243;n de Cartago en la isla con miras a establecer un cierto orden pol&#237;tico duradero, dirigida por el Mag&#243;nida Am&#237;lcar. Esta intervenci&#243;n se dio a ra&#237;z de la cercan&#237;a del senado cartagin&#233;s (la <em>Adirim</em>) con Anaxilao, tirano de Regio (en el sur de Italia), y el depuesto tirano de H&#237;mera, Terilo, quienes estaban en guerra con las ciudades de Acragas y Siracusa, dos de las colonias griegas m&#225;s grandes de la isla.</p><p>A partir de ah&#237; comienza un nuevo per&#237;odo en la historia de Cartago cada vez m&#225;s vinculado a Sicilia, llegando a controlar gran parte de su territorio y fundar ciudades como Lilibeo y Terma, entre otras. Todo este proceso se inici&#243; poco despu&#233;s del desastre que sufrieron los cartagineses junto a sus aliados etruscos de Caere en Alalia. A partir de ah&#237;, la expansi&#243;n territorial de Cartago es cada vez m&#225;s real que virtual, teniendo la capacidad de mantener ej&#233;rcitos operando fuera de &#193;frica para asegurar sus intereses y el de las ciudades fenicias bajo su protecci&#243;n. As&#237;, con una derrota, comenzaban a cimentarse las ra&#237;ces de un imperio cartagin&#233;s que en las siguientes d&#233;cadas, se convertir&#237;a en uno de los principales actores del desarrollo del Mediterr&#225;neo occidental en la Antig&#252;edad.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Human sacrifices in Rome]]></title><description><![CDATA[The burial of living couples at the Forum Boarium to win the favor of the gods.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/human-sacrifices-in-rome</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/human-sacrifices-in-rome</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 31 May 2026 17:02:19 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>The Romans tended to view human sacrifice as a barbaric act, a reflection of their enemies&#8217; nature, but reality is always more complex than what meets the eye. Classical Antiquity was no stranger to human sacrifice, and even within the Hellenistic world there are several cases, such as that of Rome, which throughout its history resorted on more than one occasion to human sacrifice to influence the will of the gods.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/sacrificios-humanos-en-roma?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png" width="848" height="748" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:748,&quot;width&quot;:848,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:995359,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/199418161?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4ef562ea-f1b9-405e-8f8a-20403a50927a_848x1200.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">By the way, the Romans were also sacrificed. A work by Milek Jakubiec depicting the sacrifice of Romans following their defeat at the hands of the Germanic tribes in the Battle of Teutoburg.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>When we speak of human sacrifice, particularly in ancient times, the first things that come to mind are the sacrifices carried out by the Gauls, the Druids of distant Britain, the Germanic peoples beyond the Rhine, or the famous child sacrifices of the Carthaginians. In general, modern historiography has tended to view the subject of human sacrifice in Antiquity with increasing skepticism, but the truth is that the various cultures that developed in the Mediterranean during this period were not unfamiliar with the idea or practice of human sacrifice.</p><p>The Greek myth of the sacrifice of Iphigenia demonstrates the knowledge and understanding of this practice as a religious ritual that allowed interaction with and influence over the gods. The Greeks were familiar with the religious mechanics of these practices, either through interaction with enemies who performed them, or, as the myth of Iphigenia itself suggests, because at some point the Greeks themselves carried them out. In Italy, at Etruscan archaeological sites, a significant number of sarcophagi and urns with reliefs depicting human sacrifices have been found in tombs. As Professor Bonfante argues (<em>Human Sacrifices and Taboos in Antiquity: Notes on an Etruscan Funerary Urn</em>, 2016), this indicates that even if the Etruscans did not practice human sacrifice at some point in their history, they at least had a great interest in it.</p><p>Human sacrifice, both as a concept and a practice, was always present in ancient times, but that does not mean it was universally accepted or that any single culture continued the practice throughout its entire history. In the Hellenistic period, the Romans and Greeks railed against the Carthaginians for their alleged sacrifices of children in honor of their chief god, Baal-Hamon. It seems that for them there was a moral limit on the age of the victim: sacrificing children went beyond what was permissible. This is a topic I have already explored in another article, but all these claims come from Romans and Greeks who were engaged in generational conflicts with the Carthaginians, and it is easy to see a layer of propaganda in this portrayal of the other&#8212;the eternal Carthaginian enemy. What is interesting in this article, I hope, is that in the Roman case it is their own historiography that records the practice of human sacrifices in Rome.</p><p>Let&#8217;s look at the facts. In 228 BC, the Romans buried alive in the Forum Boarium, one of the central points of the city of Rome, a Gallic couple&#8212;a man and a woman&#8212;and a Greek couple. According to Plutarch, the Romans acted on the instructions of the Sibyl&#8217;s oracles, hoping to gain the favor of the gods in the face of a new war against the Gallic tribes recently settled in Cisalpine Gaul (<em>Marc</em>. 3).</p><p>This is the first of three recorded human sacrifice rituals spanning three centuries. They all share common elements: the method of execution, the ethnicity of the victims, and the location of the ceremony. Livy (22.57.2-6) recounts that in 216 BC, while the Romans were still reeling from their crushing defeat against Hannibal at Cannae, two of their vestal virgins, the priestesses in charge of the cult of Vesta, were caught in romantic relationships, which was considered a grave sacrilege punishable by death. One of the vestals committed suicide; the other was buried alive as a form of execution intended to avoid bloodshed.</p><p>From the Roman worldview, the situation was dire. Hannibal was roaming freely through Italy after having destroyed the largest army Rome had ever raised in its history, and two of its vestal virgins had committed grave acts of sacrilege. Thus, a way had to be found to win the favor of the gods in order to overcome this critical situation that had shaken the Roman collective psyche. Their rulers once again consulted the oracles of the Sibyl. The answer: a Gallic man and woman, along with a Greek man and woman, were to be buried alive in the Forum Boarium to appease the gods. The same formula and execution as in the sacrifices of 228 BC.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg" width="960" height="616" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:616,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:198239,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/199418161?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4a0d7a79-fd75-40ef-945a-906ee988b9d0_960x653.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>The Torment of a Vestal</em>, by Michel Honor&#233; Bounieu (1779), represents the moment when a Vestal receives the ultimate punishment by being buried alive.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>More than two hundred years later, in the 1st century AD, Pliny the Elder reports that in his time the ritual of sacrificing humans in pairs of men and women buried alive was still practiced in the Forum Boarium. According to Pliny, the custom of sacrificing a woman and a Gallic man remained in place, but he adds that couples from other peoples with whom Rome was at war at the time were also sacrificed. This detail is significant because it suggests that the number of victims sacrificed in the ritual may have increased, or that the ritual itself may have been performed more frequently throughout the 1st century AD.</p><p>In the first two instances, there are sociopolitical contexts that help explain why the Romans resorted to these practices, as Rome was only just beginning to consolidate its dominion in Italy. The threat of invasion was real (such as Pyrrhus&#8217;s in 280 BC), and Rome could be quite vulnerable at times. However, by the 1st century AD, with the Empire consolidated and focused on expanding its borders, the ritual of burying couples from enemy peoples alive seems to have become a custom to ensure success in military campaigns, as there was nothing left for Rome to be wary of. The city was out of danger&#8212;except from its own ambitious generals&#8212;but the Romans believed it was still necessary to seek the approval of the gods through such practices.</p><p>The fact that Gallic couples have always been involved in the sacrifices can also help us understand the motives behind this ritual, and reinforces the idea that initially, these were driven by fear and collective panic in the face of complex situations for Rome.</p><p>In 387 BC, the Senones Gauls, led by Brennus, invaded Italy and defeated the Roman army at the Battle of the Allia. They then marched on the undefended city of Rome and sacked it. The surviving Romans resisted for months on the Capitoline Hill, besieged by the Gauls, who withdrew after the Romans offered a ransom in gold. Brennus retreated from the city, but the impact of his presence and the subsequent sack must have been profound in every sense: social, religious, political, and economic. The city of Rome had been sacked for the first time in its history by an army of Gallic tribes commanded by a man named Brennus. Such events are not easily forgotten by a people.</p><p>This brings us back to 228 BC, one hundred and fifty-nine years after the sack of Rome by Brennus&#8217;s Gauls, when the Romans were preparing for the prospect of another war against the Gallic tribes of Cisalpine Gaul, precisely the region from which Brennus&#8217;s Senones came. It is possible that by burying the Gallic couple alive, the Romans believed they were protecting themselves in some way. The memory of Brennus and the sack of the city was still too fresh.</p><p>In the case of the Greek couples, not long before the first of these sacrifices, the Romans faced Pyrrhus of Epirus, who invaded Italy and defeated them in two fierce battles. Therefore, the idea of &#8203;&#8203;a Greek threat may have been present in Roman society in 228 BC. During the Second Punic War, the period in which the second of these human sacrifices is recorded, the Romans fought against several Greek cities loyal to Carthage, the most iconic being Tarentum and Syracuse, the largest Greek colony in the western Mediterranean. Thus, it is likely that the Romans viewed certain Greek communities as a threat from which they needed to guard against by securing divine protection.</p><p>The Roman historian Zonaras (8.19.9), writing in the 12th century AD, ventured to offer an explanation for the human sacrifices practiced by his ancestors: the Sibyl&#8217;s oracles had foretold a Gallic and a Greek occupation of the city of Rome. To avert this outcome, the Romans supposedly initiated the ritual of sacrificing pairs of Gauls and Greeks to ensure that the land of Rome was indeed occupied by members of these peoples, thus rendering unnecessary or impossible any divine plan that might have sought to deliver the city to enemy peoples. As always, the Romans were very practical.</p><p>There are no further mentions of human sacrifice in Rome beyond the 1st century AD. The reasons for its eventual disuse may be numerous, and it is very likely that Christianity played a significant role, but that is another topic I have not yet explored in depth. What does interest me, based on the evidence written in the Roman historiography reviewed here, is that it appears that bloodless human sacrifices through the burial of victims alive were an established practice for a long period in Roman history.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Sacrificios humanos en Roma]]></title><description><![CDATA[El entierro de parejas vivas en el Foro Boario para ganar el favor de los dioses.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/sacrificios-humanos-en-roma</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/sacrificios-humanos-en-roma</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 31 May 2026 17:00:59 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Los romanos sol&#237;an ver como un acto barb&#225;rico los sacrificios humanos, un reflejo de la naturaleza de sus enemigos, pero la realidad siempre es m&#225;s compleja de lo que percibimos en la superficie. La Antig&#252;edad cl&#225;sica no fue ajena a los sacrificios humanos, e incluso dentro del mundo helen&#237;stico se encuentran varios casos, como el de Roma, que a lo largo de su historia recurri&#243; en m&#225;s de una ocasi&#243;n a sacrificios humanos para influenciar en la voluntad de los dioses.</em> </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png" width="848" height="748" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:748,&quot;width&quot;:848,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:995359,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/199418161?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4ef562ea-f1b9-405e-8f8a-20403a50927a_848x1200.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ORMj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8c71a050-60f8-4de6-b714-40d5183b8d27_848x748.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Por cierto, los romanos tambi&#233;n eran sacrificados. Obra de Milek Jakubiec representando sacrificios de romanos luego de su derrota ante las tribus germ&#225;nicas en la batalla de Teutoburgo.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Cuando se habla de sacrificios humanos, en particular en la Antig&#252;edad, lo primero que se nos viene a la mente son los sacrificios llevados a cabo por los galos, los druidas de la lejana Britania, los germanos m&#225;s all&#225; del Rin, o los famosos sacrificios de ni&#241;os de los cartagineses. En general, la historiograf&#237;a moderna a tendido a ver el tema de los sacrificios humanos en la Antig&#252;edad con cada vez m&#225;s escepticismo, pero lo cierto es que las distintas culturas que se desarrollaron en el Mediterr&#225;neo en esta &#233;poca no eran ajenas a la idea o pr&#225;ctica de los sacrificios humanos.</p><p>El mito griego del sacrifico de Ifigenia da cuenta del conocimiento y el entendimiento de esta pr&#225;ctica como un ritual religioso que permit&#237;a interactuar e influir sobre los dioses. Los griegos conoc&#237;an la mec&#225;nica religiosa de estos, ya fuese por interactuar con enemigos que los practicaban, o como sugiere el propio mito de Ifigenia, que en alguna &#233;poca los propios griegos los llevaron a cabo. En Italia, en sitios arqueol&#243;gicos etruscos, se han encontrado en tumbas una cantidad importante de sarc&#243;fagos y urnas con relieves representando sacrificios humanos, lo que, como plantea la profesora Bonfante (<em>Human Sacrifices and Taboos in Antiquity: Notes on an Etruscan Funerary Urn</em>, 2016) da cuenta de que si los etruscos no practicaron en alg&#250;n momento de su historia, al menos ten&#237;an un gran inter&#233;s por estos. </p><p>Los sacrificios humanos, como idea y pr&#225;ctica siempre estuvieron presente en la Antig&#252;edad, pero eso no quiere decir que hayan sido aceptado universalmente o que una misma cultura haya perpetuado la pr&#225;ctica a lo largo de toda su historia. En la &#233;poca helen&#237;stica, los romanos y los griegos despotricaban en contra de los cartagineses por sus supuestos sacrificios de ni&#241;os en honor a su dios principal, Baal-Hamon. Parece que para ellos hab&#237;a un l&#237;mite moral en la edad de la v&#237;ctima: sacrificar ni&#241;os iba m&#225;s all&#225; de lo permitido. Este es un tema que ya he desarrollado en otro art&#237;culo, pero todas estas afirmaciones vienen de romanos y griegos que mantuvieron luchas generacionales con los cartagineses, y es f&#225;cil ver una capa de propaganda en esta representaci&#243;n del otro, el eterno enemigo cartagin&#233;s. Lo interesante en este art&#237;culo, espero, es que en el caso romano es la misma historiograf&#237;a romana la que registra la pr&#225;ctica de sacrificios humanos en Roma. </p><p>Vamos a los hechos. En el 228 a. C. los romanos enterraron vivos en el Foro Boario, uno de los puntos neur&#225;lgicos de la ciudad de Roma, a una pareja gala &#8211;un hombre y una mujer&#8211; y a otra griega. Seg&#250;n Plutarco, los romanos actuaron siguiendo instrucciones de los or&#225;culos de la Sibila, para contar con el favor de los dioses ante la perspectiva de una nueva guerra contra las tribus galas reci&#233;n asentadas en la Galia Cisalpina (<em>Marc. </em>3).</p><p>Este es el primero de tres rituales de sacrificios humanos sobre los que hay registro escrito, y que se esparcen por un per&#237;odo de tres siglos. Todos tienen en com&#250;n la forma de ejecuci&#243;n y la etnia de las v&#237;ctimas, as&#237; como el lugar de la ceremonia. Livio (22. 57. 2-6) cuenta que en el 216 a. C., cuando los romanos aun procesaban la dura derrota ante An&#237;bal en Cannae, dos de sus v&#237;rgenes Vestales, las sacerdotisas encargadas del culto a Vesta, fueron sorprendidas en relaciones amorosas, lo que se consideraba un grave sacrilegio que deb&#237;a castigarse con la pena m&#225;xima. Una de las vestales se suicid&#243;; la otra fue enterrada viva como una forma de ejecuci&#243;n que buscaba evitar el derramamiento de sangre.</p><p>Dentro de la cosmovisi&#243;n romana la situaci&#243;n era grave. An&#237;bal se mov&#237;a a sus anchas por Italia habiendo destruido el ej&#233;rcito m&#225;s grande que Roma hab&#237;a levantado en su historia, y dos de sus vestales hab&#237;an cometido graves sacrilegios. As&#237;, hab&#237;a que buscar una forma de ganar el favor de los dioses para superar esa cr&#237;tica situaci&#243;n que ten&#237;a golpeada a la psiquis colectiva romana. Sus gobernantes consultaron nuevamente los or&#225;culos de la Sibila. La respuesta: un hombre y una mujer gala junto a un hombre y una mujer griega deb&#237;an ser enterrados vivos en el Foro Boario para aplacar a los dioses. Misma f&#243;rmula y ejecuci&#243;n que en los sacrificios del 228 a. C.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg" width="960" height="616" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:616,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:198239,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/199418161?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4a0d7a79-fd75-40ef-945a-906ee988b9d0_960x653.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!bGlt!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c4b2c84-bb8b-4715-93b0-fab4c2f54041_960x616.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>El suplicio de una Vestal</em>, de Michel Honor&#233; Bounieu (1779), representa el momento en que una Vestal recibe el castigo supremo al ser enterrada viva.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>M&#225;s de doscientos a&#241;os despu&#233;s, en el siglo I d. C., Plinio el Viejo reporta que en su &#233;poca aun se practicaba el rito de sacrificar humanos en parejas de hombres y mujeres enterrados vivos en el Foro Boario. Seg&#250;n Plinio, se segu&#237;a manteniendo la costumbre de que las v&#237;ctimas fuesen una mujer y un hombre galo, pero a&#241;ade que tambi&#233;n se sacrificaban a parejas de otros pueblos con los que Roma estaba en guerra en la &#233;poca. Este dato es relevante ya que indica que el n&#250;mero de v&#237;ctimas a sacrificar en el ritual habr&#237;a aumentado, o que el ritual en s&#237; se habr&#237;a dado con una mayor frecuencia a lo largo del siglo I d. C.</p><p>En las dos primeras ocasiones hay contextos sociopol&#237;ticos que ayudar&#237;an a entender que los romanos hayan recurrido a este tipo de pr&#225;cticas, pues Roma reci&#233;n estaba comenzando a consolidar su dominio en Italia. Las amenazas de invasiones eran reales (como la de Pirro en el 280 a. C.) y Roma pod&#237;a llegar a ser muy vulnerable en ocasiones, pero para el siglo I d. C., con el Imperio consolidado y dedic&#225;ndose a expandir sus fronteras, el ritual de enterrar vivos a parejas de los pueblos enemigos parece haberse vuelto una costumbre para asegurar el &#233;xito en las campa&#241;as militares, pues no hab&#237;a nada de qu&#233; prevenir a Roma. La ciudad estaba fuera de todo peligro &#8211;salvo de sus propios y ambiciosos generales&#8211;, pero los romanos cre&#237;an que aun era necesario buscar la aprobaci&#243;n de los dioses con este tipo de pr&#225;cticas.</p><p>El hecho de que siempre haya habido parejas galas involucradas en los sacrificios tambi&#233;n puede ayudarnos a comprender los motivos detr&#225;s de este ritual, y refuerza la idea de que en un inicio, estos eran impulsados por el miedo y el p&#225;nico colectivo ante situaciones complejas para Roma.</p><p>En el 387 a. C. los galos senones comandados por Breno invadieron Italia y derrotaron al ej&#233;rcito romano en la Batalla del Alia, para proseguir su marcha hacia la indefensa Roma y saquearla. Los romanos sobrevivientes resistieron durante meses en la colina del Capitolino siendo asediado por los galos, los cuales se retiraron despu&#233;s del ofrecimiento de un pago en oro por parte de los romanos. Breno se retir&#243; de la ciudad, pero el impacto que dej&#243; su paso y el saqueo debe haber sido muy fuerte en todo sentido, social, religioso, pol&#237;tico y econ&#243;mico. La ciudad de Roma hab&#237;a sido saqueada por primera vez en su historia por un ej&#233;rcito de tribus galas comandadas por un tal Breno. Cosas as&#237; no se olvidan con facilidad en la memoria colectiva de un pueblo.</p><p>Eso nos lleva nuevamente al 228 a. C., ciento cincuenta y nueve a&#241;os despu&#233;s del saqueo de Roma por los galos de Breno, cuando los romanos se preparaban para la perspectiva de una nueva guerra contra las tribus galas de la Galia Cisalpina, precisamente de donde proven&#237;an los senones de Breno. Es posible que con el entierro vivo de la pareja gala los romanos creyesen que se estaban protegiendo de alguna forma. El recuerdo de Breno y el saqueo de la ciudad segu&#237;a demasiado fresco.</p><p>En el caso de las parejas griegas, no mucho antes del primero de estos sacrificios los romanos se enfrentaron a Pirro de &#201;piro, quien invadi&#243; Italia y los derrot&#243; en dos duras batallas, por lo que la idea de una amenaza griega puede haber estado latente en la sociedad romana en el 228 a. C. Durante la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, la &#233;poca en la que se registra el segundo de este tipo de sacrificios humanos, los romanos lucharon contra varias ciudades griegas leales a Cartago, siendo las m&#225;s ic&#243;nicas Tarento y Siracusa, la colonia griega m&#225;s grande en el Mediterr&#225;neo occidental. As&#237;, es probable que los romanos hayan visto a ciertas comunidades griegas como una amenaza de la que hab&#237;a que resguardarse asegurando la protecci&#243;n divina.</p><p>El historiador romano Zonaras (8. 19. 9), escribiendo en el siglo XII d. C. se aventur&#243; a dar una explicaci&#243;n a los sacrificios humanos practicados por sus antepasados: los or&#225;culos de la Sibila hab&#237;an anticipado una ocupaci&#243;n gala y otra griega de la ciudad de Roma. Para evitar este desenlace, los romanos habr&#237;an iniciado el ritual de sacrificar parejas de galos y griegos para asegurarse de que la tierra de Roma efectivamente estuviese siendo ocupada por integrantes de dichos pueblos, haciendo innecesario o imposible cualquier designio de los dioses que haya buscado entregar la ciudad a pueblos enemigos. Como siempre, muy pr&#225;cticos los romanos.</p><p>No existen m&#225;s menciones de los sacrificios humanos en Roma m&#225;s all&#225; del siglo I d. C. Las razones para su eventual desuso pueden ser m&#250;ltiples y es muy probable que el Cristianismo haya jugado un rol importante en esto, pero eso ya es otro tema en el que aun no he profundizado. Lo que s&#237; me interesa a partir de la evidencia escrita en la propia historiograf&#237;a romana revisada aqu&#237;, es que pareciera que los sacrificios humanos sin derramamiento de sangre mediante el entierro de las v&#237;ctimas vivas, fueron una pr&#225;ctica establecida por un largo per&#237;odo de la historia de Roma.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Hannibal's Oath]]></title><description><![CDATA[The famous scene that defined the legacy of Rome's eternal enemy.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/hannibals-oath</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/hannibals-oath</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2026 12:17:31 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Roman historiography has always portrayed the Second Punic War as the result of the deep hatred that Hamilcar Barca and his sons harbored toward Rome. Central to this narrative is the scene in which Hannibal&#8212;then just a child&#8212;swears before the altar of Zeus and in front of his father to always be an enemy of the Romans. This cemented the Carthaginian general&#8217;s legacy in the memory of the Greco-Roman world after he had spent more than sixteen years fighting the Romans in Italy; it made him Rome&#8217;s eternal enemy.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/el-juramento-de-anibal?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;:</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>Hannibal Swearing to His Father That He Will Always Be Rome&#8217;s Enemy</em>, by Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini (1731).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Hannibal is remembered as one of the greatest generals in history, but also as Rome&#8217;s great and eternal enemy. He was the only general of Antiquity capable of defeating the legions on several occasions and threatening the Roman Republic as an independent political entity, and he supposedly fought motivated by an oath made to his father to always be an enemy of the Romans, which would explain, from the Roman perspective, his actions throughout his entire life. This undoubtedly adds a layer of narrative drama to the true epic that was the Second Punic War.</p><p>Polybius (3. 11. 1&#8211;9) recounts that prior to the outbreak of war between Rome and the Seleucids in 192 BC, a Roman embassy sent to negotiate with Antiochus III regarding possible ways to avoid war was very friendly and affable toward Hannibal (the same occasion on which Livy reports the alleged meeting between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal), who by then had found refuge at Antiochus&#8217;s court after being forced into exile from Carthage in 196 BC. This aroused suspicion among some members of the Seleucid king&#8217;s court, who turned him against Hannibal.</p><p>This led Antiochus to confront Hannibal, who was forced to explain himself and assure the king that his loyalty lay with him. Since the king&#8217;s advisors and Antiochus himself did not seem to yield to his arguments, the Carthaginian general appealed to a story from his childhood in which, as his father prepared to cross from Africa to Hispania with his army, he made offerings to Zeus at an altar. When Hannibal approached his father, the latter asked him if he wanted to accompany him on the campaign, and he, at only nine years old, said yes. At that, Hamilcar took his right hand and placed it on the offerings on the altar, making him swear that he would never be a friend of the Romans.</p><p>This story dispelled the doubts Antiochus had about Hannibal, and eventually the veteran Carthaginian general became part of the Seleucid king&#8217;s high command in his war against Rome (192&#8211;188 B.C.). Things did not go well for the Seleucids, and when Antiochus sought peace with Rome, his court was no longer a safe place for Hannibal, who decided to leave for the kingdom of Bithynia, but that is another story.</p><p>Let&#8217;s return to Hannibal&#8217;s oath. The context of the revelation of Hannibal&#8217;s oath is important because Roman sources present it as one of the main causes for the outbreak of the Second Punic War, <strong>but it is very likely that the oath was nothing more than an invention by the general to secure his position at the court of Antiochus III and thus dispel any doubts about his loyalty.</strong> All of this, of course, is speculation, but Hannibal&#8217;s actions throughout his life contradict the idea of a hatred of Rome instilled in him from childhood, and above all, the idea that he was bound by a sacred oath to be an enemy of the Romans.</p><p>For example, following his victory at Cannae in 216 BC, just two years after the start of the Second Punic War, Hannibal sent an envoy to Rome to propose terms of peace, which were rejected by the Roman Senate (Livy, 22. 58. 7&#8211;9). This rules out the possibility that Hannibal intended to destroy Rome as an independent political entity, or that he might even have gone so far as to destroy the city itself. Moreover, if the Romans had agreed to negotiate the terms of peace imposed by Hannibal on that occasion, the Carthaginian general would have had no moral or legal reason to remain an enemy of the Romans. Continuing down that path would have been counterproductive, since the new geopolitical landscape envisioned by Hannibal himself did indeed include the existence of Rome; a Rome subordinate to Carthage. Another clear example of this attitude can be found after his defeat at Zama, where it was he who convinced the Carthaginian Senate that it was time to seek peace with the Romans and end the war (Livy, 30. 36. 3&#8211;4).</p><p>The idea of &#8203;&#8203;Hannibal as Rome&#8217;s eternal enemy stems from the way the Second Punic War unfolded and also from his exile, where the safest place to take refuge was the court of Antiochus III, who was experiencing growing tensions with Rome and was prepared to go to war. In this context, it is logical that the Carthaginian general exploited his reputation as Rome&#8217;s enemy to secure a place within the Seleucid king&#8217;s inner circle, for which the story of the supposed oath he swore to his father was ideal.</p><p>Roman historiography recorded this episode as one of the most famous concerning Hannibal, and from it, it explains the course of his life and the outbreak of the Second Punic War. Furthermore, from the Roman perspective, the oath scene added an epic element to the narrative of the wars fought between the two peoples, depicting their overcoming and defeating a powerful enemy whose existence was based on hatred and a desire to destroy Rome. Hannibal himself did much to enhance this legend, and the Romans never hesitated to use his legacy to glorify their triumph over Carthage.</p><p>Hannibal was a shrewd general who spent most of his life moving through hostile lands and among hostile peoples (he spent only sixteen years of his life in Carthage). He knew how to handle situations like the one imposed on him by the court of Antiochus III, and if the oath-taking scene had been real, I find it hard to believe that Hannibal wouldn&#8217;t have exploited it long before in his life, such as when he was in Italy. However, a lie like that, from someone with experience living abroad or in exile and always on guard, does seem plausible to me in a context like the one Hannibal found himself in during his exile. It was the ideal lie, using years of his legacy to give it credibility and extricate himself from the dangerous situation his many enemies at Antiochus&#8217;s court had placed him in.</p><p>This is my take on the matter, and if you ask me what it implies or what significance it might have, it is that it allows us to view the legacy of Hannibal, Rome&#8217;s eternal enemy, as something circumstantial that he personally never sought. By removing that element, we can study and interpret Hannibal&#8217;s life and his actions during the Second Punic War from a new perspective, going beyond the legend of his figure to get closer to the real man who made history. As for what has remained over time, I have no doubt whatsoever that Hannibal never had any interest in becoming Rome&#8217;s great and eternal enemy. He knew he was greater than that idea, and his life reflects that.</p><div><hr></div><h4>Related articles:</h4><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;8128c2b8-bb4d-4ff2-ab33-c5d180e2a641&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Hannibal is one of the most famous generals in history, a fame he acquired largely due to his overwhelming victories on the battlefield against the Romans, the eternal rival. Trebia, Trasimeno, Cannae or Herdonia, are all battles whose epic records have survived the passage of time, immortalizing the exploits of the great Carthaginian general. So impres&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;lg&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Escaping from Rome&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-04-13T19:46:43.109Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fztS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3c76a9f-b1b3-4a00-a197-5a1278610c3a_1157x1400.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/escaping-from-rome&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:161080338,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:18,&quot;comment_count&quot;:3,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[El juramento de Aníbal]]></title><description><![CDATA[La famosa escena que defini&#243; el legado del eterno enemigo de Roma.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/el-juramento-de-anibal</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/el-juramento-de-anibal</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 08 May 2026 12:15:57 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>La historiograf&#237;a romana siempre ha mostrado la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica como el producto del profundo odio de Am&#237;lcar Barca y sus hijos hacia Roma. Clave en este relato es la escena en que An&#237;bal &#8211;entonces solo un ni&#241;o&#8211; jura ante el altar de Zeus y frente a su padre ser siempre enemigo de los romanos. Esta consolid&#243; el legado del general cartagin&#233;s en la memoria del mundo greco-romano luego de haber pasado m&#225;s de diecis&#233;is a&#241;os luchando contra los romanos en Italia; lo convert&#237;a en el eterno enemigo de Roma. </em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic" width="1456" height="1109" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!m0Wz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fafc4fa8b-78e9-4bab-b5e9-802fa609e758_1500x1143.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>An&#237;bal jurando a  su padre ser siempre enemigo de Roma</em>, de Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini (1731).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>An&#237;bal es recordado como uno de los m&#225;s grandes generales de la historia, pero tambi&#233;n como el gran y eterno enemigo de Roma. Fue el &#250;nico general de la Antig&#252;edad capaz de derrotar a las legiones en varias ocasiones y poner en peligro la Rep&#250;blica romana como entidad pol&#237;tica independiente, y supuestamente luchaba motivado por un juramente hecho a su padre de ser siempre enemigo de los romanos, lo cual explicar&#237;a desde la perspectiva romana su actuar a lo largo de toda su vida. Sin duda esto a&#241;ade una capa de dramatismo narrativo a la verdadera &#233;pica que fue la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica.</p><p>Polibio (3. 11. 1-9) cuenta que previo al estallido de la guerra entre Roma y los sel&#233;ucidas en el 192 a. C., una embajada romana que fue enviada a tratar con Ant&#237;oco III sobre posibles formas de evitar la guerra, se mostr&#243; muy cercana y afable con An&#237;bal (la misma ocasi&#243;n en que Livio reporta el supuesto encuentro entre Escipi&#243;n Africano y An&#237;bal), que por ese entonces hab&#237;a encontrado refugio en la corte de Ant&#237;oco luego de tener que exiliarse de Cartago en el 196 a. C. Esto gener&#243; sospechas entre algunos miembros de la corte del rey sel&#233;ucida, quienes lo dispusieron en contra de An&#237;bal.</p><p>Esto llev&#243; a Ant&#237;oco a encarar a An&#237;bal, quien debi&#243; dar explicaciones y asegurarle al rey que su lealtad estaba con &#233;l. Como los consejeros del rey y el propio Ant&#237;oco no parec&#237;an ceder a sus argumentos, el general cartagin&#233;s apel&#243; a una historia de su infancia en la que cuando su padre se preparaba para cruzar de &#193;frica a Hispania con su ej&#233;rcito, hizo ofrendas a Zeus en un altar. Cuando An&#237;bal se aproxim&#243; a su padre, este le pregunt&#243; si quer&#237;a acompa&#241;arlo en la campa&#241;a y &#233;l, con solo nueve a&#241;os, dijo que s&#237;, ante lo cual Am&#237;lcar aferr&#243; su mano derecha y la puse sobre las ofrendas del altar, haci&#233;ndole jurar que jam&#225;s ser&#237;a amigo de los romanos.</p><p>Esta historia llev&#243; a disipar las dudas que Ant&#237;oco ten&#237;a sobre An&#237;bal, y eventualmente el veterano general cartagin&#233;s pas&#243; a formar parte del alto mando del rey sel&#233;ucida en su guerra contra Roma (192-188 a. C.). Las cosas no fueron bien para los sel&#233;ucidas, y cuando Ant&#237;oco solicit&#243; la paz a Roma, su corte dej&#243; de ser un lugar seguro para An&#237;bal, quien decidi&#243; marcharse al reino de Bitinia, pero esa es otra historia.</p><p>Volvamos al juramento de An&#237;bal. El contexto de la revelaci&#243;n del juramento de An&#237;bal es importante porque las fuentes romanas lo presentan como una de las principales causas para explicar el estallido de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, <strong>pero</strong> <strong>es muy probable que el juramento no haya sido m&#225;s que una invenci&#243;n del general para afianzar su posici&#243;n en la corte de Ant&#237;oco III y as&#237; disipar las dudas que exist&#237;an sobre su lealtad.</strong> Todo esto, por supuesto, es especulaci&#243;n, pero el actuar de An&#237;bal a lo largo de su vida se contradice con la idea de un odio inculcado desde la infancia hacia Roma, y por sobre todo, con la idea de estar atado por un juramento sagrado a ser enemigo de los romanos.</p><p>Por ejemplo, luego de su victoria en Cannae en el 216 a. C., solo dos a&#241;os despu&#233;s de haberse iniciado la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, An&#237;bal envi&#243; un embajador a Roma a imponer t&#233;rminos de paz, los cuales fueron rechazados por el senado romano (Livio, 22. 58. 7-9). Esto permite descartar que An&#237;bal hubiera tenido intenciones de destruir a Roma como entidad pol&#237;tica independiente, o que incluso hubiese ido m&#225;s lejos con la idea de destruir la ciudad. Es m&#225;s, si los romanos hubiesen aceptado negociar en aquella ocasi&#243;n los t&#233;rminos de paz impuestos por An&#237;bal, el general cartagin&#233;s no habr&#237;a tenido ninguna raz&#243;n moral o legal para seguir siendo enemigo de los romanos. Seguir en ese camino habr&#237;a sido contraproducente ya que el nuevo panorama geopol&#237;tico que proyectaba el propio An&#237;bal s&#237; contemplaba la existencia de Roma; una Roma supeditada a Cartago. Otro claro ejemplo de esta actitud la encontramos despu&#233;s de su derrota en Zama, donde fue &#233;l quien convenci&#243; al senado cartagin&#233;s de que era momento de solicitar la paz a los romanos y terminar con la guerra (Livio, 30. 36. 3-4). </p><p>La idea de An&#237;bal como el eterno enemigo de Roma responde a la forma en que se desarroll&#243; la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica y tambi&#233;n a su exilio, donde el lugar m&#225;s seguro para refugiarse era la corte de Ant&#237;oco III, quien estaba entrando en tensiones con Roma y estaba dispuesto a ir a la guerra. En ese sentido, es l&#243;gico que el general cartagin&#233;s haya explotado su fama como enemigo de Roma para afianzarse en el c&#237;rculo de confianza del rey sel&#233;ucida, para lo cual el relato del supuesto juramento hecho a su padre era ideal. </p><p>La historiograf&#237;a romana recogi&#243; este episodio como uno de los m&#225;s famosos sobre An&#237;bal, y a partir de ah&#237; explica la forma en que se desarroll&#243; su vida y el estallido de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica. Por otra parte, desde la perspectiva romana la escena del juramento agregaba un elemento &#233;pico a la narraci&#243;n de las guerras libradas entre ambos pueblos, al sobreponerse y derrotar a un poderoso enemigo que basaba su existencia en el odio y deseo de destrucci&#243;n de Roma. El propio An&#237;bal hizo mucho para engrandecer esta leyenda, y los romanos jam&#225;s dudaron en tomar ese legado para glorificar su triunfo sobre Cartago.</p><p>An&#237;bal era un general astuto, que la mayor parte de su vida se movi&#243; entre tierras y pueblos hostiles (pas&#243; solo diecis&#233;is a&#241;os de su vida en Cartago). Sab&#237;a c&#243;mo lidiar con situaciones como la que le impuso la corte de Ant&#237;oco III y si la escena del juramento hubiese sido real, me parece dif&#237;cil creer que An&#237;bal no la haya explotado mucho antes en su vida, como cuando estuvo en Italia. Sin embargo, una mentira como esa, de alguien con experiencia en vivir en el exterior o en el exilio y siempre alerta, s&#237; me parece plausible en un contexto como el que se encontraba An&#237;bal en su exilio. Era la mentira ideal, utilizando a&#241;os de su legado para darle fundamento y salir de la peligrosa situaci&#243;n en la que lo hab&#237;an puesto sus m&#250;ltiples enemigos en la corte de Ant&#237;oco.</p><p>Esta es mi opini&#243;n al respecto, y si me preguntan qu&#233; implica o qu&#233; relevancia puede tener, es que permite ver el legado de An&#237;bal, el eterno enemigo de Roma, como algo circunstancial y que &#233;l personalmente nunca busc&#243;. Al remover ese elemento, se puede estudiar e interpretar la vida de An&#237;bal y su actuar durante la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica con una nueva perspectiva, yendo m&#225;s all&#225; de la leyenda de su figura para acercarnos al hombre real que hizo historia. En cuanto a lo que ha quedado con el paso del tiempo, no tengo la menor duda de que An&#237;bal jam&#225;s tuvo inter&#233;s en convertirse en el gran y eterno enemigo de Roma. &#201;l sab&#237;a que era m&#225;s grande que esa idea, y su vida es un reflejo de eso.</p><div><hr></div><h4>Art&#237;culos relacionados:</h4><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;9b2f1c75-c7bf-4db0-8794-3f61e50ad9e1&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;An&#237;bal es uno de los generales m&#225;s famosos de la Historia, fama que adquiri&#243; en gran medida debido a sus aplastantes victorias en el campo de batalla contra los romanos, el eterno rival. Trebia, Trasimeno, Cannae o Herdonia, son todas batallas cuyos &#233;picos registros han sobrevivido al paso del tiempo, inmortalizando las haza&#241;as del gran general cartagin&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;lg&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Escapando de Roma&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-04-13T19:45:23.835Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fztS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3c76a9f-b1b3-4a00-a197-5a1278610c3a_1157x1400.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/escapando-de-roma&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:160921627,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Three books about Carthage]]></title><description><![CDATA[Essential works for understanding the history of the great Punic city.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/three-books-about-carthage</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/three-books-about-carthage</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 30 Apr 2026 12:02:22 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>A review of three books that I consider essential for gaining an in-depth understanding of the history of Carthage, featuring a strong interdisciplinary approach that bridges Archaeology and History to bring the past of this once-great Punic city to life. &#8220;Carthage&#8221; by Serge Lancel (1994), &#8220;Carthage: A Biography&#8221; by Dexter Hoyos (2021), and &#8220;Carthage: A New History of an Ancient Empire&#8221; (2025) are the focus of this article.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/tres-libros-sobre-cartago?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 848w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The three books in question, along with their respective covers.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>I recently finished reading the latest book by Eve Macdonald, a historian and archaeologist specializing in Carthaginian history, titled <em>Carthage: A New History of an Ancient Empire</em>, published in 2025 by Ebury Press. It is an excellent book that traces the history of Carthage through an innovative narrative approach, offering a fresh perspective on the past of this great Punic city.</p><p>I believe it is appropriate to begin this article with this point because the three major works I am about to briefly review share the same focus of study and the same literary sources, with only minor variations in the archaeological sources that have not led to significant advances in our understanding of the subject; three books that, in essence, draw on and discuss the same material, yet also allow us to understand Carthage from different perspectives. For this reason, I consider them a fundamental triad within the body of knowledge produced on the history of the Punic city, and one that I would personally recommend to anyone wishing to delve deeper into the subject.</p><p>Let&#8217;s begin with Professor Serge Lancel&#8217;s work, <em>Carthage</em>, published in Spanish in 1994 by Editorial Cr&#237;tica. Since then, it has become a must-read in the field of studies on the history of the Punic city. As an archaeologist and historian, Lancel offers a comprehensive overview of the history of Carthage and effectively contextualizes how the latest archaeological discoveries of the 20th century were assimilated and integrated into the body of evidence by academic communities. His handling of classical sources is impeccable, as is his knowledge of the history of 19th- and 20th-century archaeological excavations at the Carthage site, which pinpointed the exact location of the city, as well as key sites such as the hill of Byrsa and the <em>Tophet</em>, the sacred area.</p><p>In this way, it seems to me that Lancel&#8217;s work stands as a very comprehensive study of the history of Carthage, and that it remains quite relevant today despite new advances in the field of archaeological evidence. The balance between this evidence and historical interpretation is well achieved, allowing for the reconstruction of Carthage&#8217;s history from its founding in the early 9th century BC through its destruction in 146 BC and the subsequent refounding of the city and the emergence of Roman Carthage. I repeat, this is a key book for understanding the history of Carthage, and one I would recommend to anyone as a starting point.</p><p><em>Carthage: A Biography</em> by Professor Dexter Hoyos, published by Routledge in 2021, strikes me as an indispensable work for understanding the history of Carthage, as his interpretation of the past is presented through a structured narrative that once again demonstrates how important it is to ground research and interpretation in the major events of the past that are commonly&#8212;and often disparagingly&#8212;classified as <em>military history</em>.</p><p>Hoyos&#8217;s work is rooted in a passion for linear narrative, built around the major figures and families who ruled Carthage, resulting in a highly structured and solid account that effectively integrates and contextualizes each of the conflicts and major events that shaped Carthaginian history. I would say that the greatest strength of this work is the author&#8217;s extensive use of sources, as well as his knowledge of Carthage&#8217;s military and political history. It is a book I will always recommend, especially to those with a particular interest in military history.</p><p>Now let&#8217;s turn to the book that inspired me to write this article: <em>Carthage: A New History of an Ancient Empire</em>, published in 2025 by historian and archaeologist Eve Macdonald (who also wrote an excellent biography of Hannibal that I highly recommend). Her work is based on an exhaustive use of Greco-Roman sources and archaeological evidence, including the results of the most recent excavations and discoveries, making it an excellent book for gaining an in-depth, updated understanding of the subject.</p><p>At times, his narrative and structure seem to take the form of a choral biography. Macdonald approaches the history of Carthage from the perspective and context of various individuals who played prominent roles in it, beginning with Dido and the founding of the city, moving through the rule of the Magonids, the rise of the Barcids, and the influential figure of Hannibal, and concluding with Hasdrubal the Boetharch and his wife, the city&#8217;s last rulers.</p><p>In addition to the traditional political and military focus&#8212;which is unavoidable when studying Carthage&#8212;Macdonald also makes a concerted effort to bring us closer to Carthaginian and Punic culture and, in some way, to help us imagine the daily lives of many of the families that made up the people of Carthage. In this vein, great importance is also given to Carthage&#8217;s relationship with other Punic cities and the city&#8217;s colonization projects, a topic that has generally been ignored by contemporary historiography, so it is refreshing to see serious research on the subject. Without a doubt, this has quickly become one of my favorite books on Carthage.</p><p>As I mentioned at the beginning, I believe these three books are essential for understanding the latest history of Punic Carthage, and I certainly recommend them to anyone&#8212;regardless of their familiarity with Carthaginian history&#8212;who wants to immerse themselves in Carthage and imagine in detail what that great city, which could have changed the course of Western history, was like.</p><p>I hope I haven&#8217;t disappointed you with this short list and its reviews. I must admit I&#8217;m a bit rusty when it comes to literary discussions, but I couldn&#8217;t resist recommending these books and giving it a try. If anyone would like to discuss them or delve deeper into the existing literature on Carthage, please remember that you can always write to me. Best regards to all of you reading this.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Tres libros sobre Cartago]]></title><description><![CDATA[Obras indispensables para conocer la historia de la gran ciudad p&#250;nica.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/tres-libros-sobre-cartago</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/tres-libros-sobre-cartago</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 30 Apr 2026 12:01:03 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Una revisi&#243;n de tres libros que considero indispensables para conocer la historia de Cartago en profundidad, con un fuerte cruce interdisciplinario entre la Arqueolog&#237;a y la Historia para darle vida al pasado de la otrora gran ciudad p&#250;nica. &#8220;Cartago&#8221; de Serge Lancel (1994), &#8220;Carthage. A Biography&#8221; de Dexter Hoyos (2021) , y &#8220;Carthage. A New History of an Ancient Empire&#8221; (2025) son los protagonistas de este art&#237;culo.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png" width="1456" height="922" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:922,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:3279231,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/195280988?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!zalj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8919b8a9-d837-4b95-9350-d9f0be6d26fe_1677x1062.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Los tres libros en cuesti&#243;n con sus respectivas portadas.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Recientemente termin&#233; de leer el &#250;ltimo libro de la historiadora y arque&#243;loga especializada en historia cartaginesa, Eve Macdonald, titulado <em>Carthage. A New History of an Ancient Empire</em>, publicado en el 2025 por Ebury Press. Un excelente libro que hace un recorrido por la historia de Cartago buscando una propuesta narrativa innovadora, algo que permitiese ver el pasado de la gran ciudad p&#250;nica de una forma distinta. </p><p>Esto es algo con lo que me parece pertinente partir este art&#237;culo porque estas tres grandes obras que voy a revisar brevemente tienen un mismo foco de estudio, las mismas fuentes literarias, y peque&#241;as variaciones en las fuentes arqueol&#243;gicas que no han llevado a mayores avances en el estado del conocimiento del asunto; tres libros que en esencia se nutren y hablan de lo mismo, pero que a su vez nos permiten entender Cartago desde distintas perspectivas. Por eso, los considero una tr&#237;ada fundamental dentro del conocimiento producido sobre la historia de la ciudad p&#250;nica, y la que yo personalmente le recomendar&#237;a a cualquiera que quiera profundizar en el tema.</p><p>Partamos con la obra del profesor Serge Lancel, <em>Cartago,</em> publicada en espa&#241;ol en el a&#241;o 1994 por Editorial Cr&#237;tica. Desde entonces, se ha convertido en una parada obligatoria en el &#225;mbito de los estudios de la historia de la ciudad p&#250;nica. Como arque&#243;logo e historiador, Lancel nos presenta una mirada integral de lo que fue la historia de Cartago y contextualiza muy bien la forma en que los &#250;ltimos descubrimientos arqueol&#243;gicos durante el siglo XX fueron asimilados e integrados al cuerpo de evidencia por las comunidades acad&#233;micas. Su manejo de las fuentes cl&#225;sicas es impecable, as&#237; como su conocimiento de la historia de los procesos arqueol&#243;gicos de los siglos XIX y XX en el sitio de Cartago, los cuales dieron con el lugar exacto del emplazamiento de la ciudad, as&#237; como con puntos clave como la colina de Byrsa y el <em>Tophet, </em>el &#225;rea sagrada. </p><p>De esta forma, me parece que la de Lancel se convierte en una obra muy completa sobre la historia de Cartago, y que se mantiene bastante vigente en la actualidad a pesar de los nuevos avances en el &#225;rea de la evidencia arqueol&#243;gica. El balance entre esta y la interpretaci&#243;n hist&#243;rica est&#225; bien logrado, y permite reconstruir una historia de Cartago desde su fundaci&#243;n a principios del siglo IX a. C. hasta su destrucci&#243;n en el 146 a. C. y la posterior refundaci&#243;n de la ciudad y el surgimiento de una Cartago romana. Insisto, un libro clave para conocer la historia de Cartago, y con el que recomendar&#237;a partir a cualquier persona.</p><p><em>Carthage. A Biography </em>del profesor Dexter Hoyos, publicada por Routledge en 2021, me parece una obra indispensable para conocer la historia de Cartago ya que su interpretaci&#243;n del pasado es presentada a trav&#233;s de una estructurada narrativa que demuestra nuevamente lo importante que es construir la investigaci&#243;n e interpretaci&#243;n en base a los grandes hechos del pasado que com&#250;nmente &#8211;y muchas veces despectivamente&#8211; se catalogan como <em>historia militar. </em></p><p>La obra de Hoyos se constituye a partir de un anhelo por la narrativa linear, construida a trav&#233;s de los grandes personajes y familias que gobernaron Cartago, teniendo como resultado una narraci&#243;n sumamente estructurada y s&#243;lida que inserta y contextualiza muy bien cada uno de los conflictos y grandes hechos que dieron forma a la historia cartaginesa. Dir&#237;a que el mayor fuerte de esta obra es el extenso manejo de fuentes del autor, as&#237; como el conocimiento de la historia militar y pol&#237;tica de Cartago. Un libro que siempre voy a recomendar, sobre todo a los que tienen un particular inter&#233;s por la historia militar.</p><p>Ahora vamos al libro que me dio la idea de escribir este art&#237;culo: <em>Carthage. A New History of an Ancient Empire, </em>publicado en el 2025 por la historiadora y arque&#243;loga Eve Macdonald (quien adem&#225;s tiene una muy buena biograf&#237;a de An&#237;bal que tambi&#233;n recomiendo). Su obra se basa en un exhaustivo uso de fuentes greco-romanas y la evidencia arqueol&#243;gica, incluyendo los resultados de excavaciones y descubrimientos m&#225;s recientes, lo que lo convierte en un excelente libro para estar actualizados en profundidad sobre el tema. </p><p>A ratos, su narrativa y estructura parece tomar la forma de una biograf&#237;a coral. Macdonald aborda el tema de la historia de Cartago desde la perspectiva y contexto de distintos individuos que destacaron en esta, partiendo por Dido con la fundaci&#243;n de la ciudad, pasando por el dominio de los Mag&#243;nidas, el auge de los B&#225;rcidas y la influyente figura de An&#237;bal, para terminar con Asdr&#250;bal el Beotarca y su esposa, los &#250;ltimos gobernantes de la ciudad. </p><p>Adem&#225;s del tradicional enfoque pol&#237;tico y militar &#8211;que es inevitable a la hora de estudiar Cartago&#8211; Macdonald tambi&#233;n hace un gran esfuerzo por acercarnos a la cultura cartaginesa y p&#250;nica y de alguna forma, poder imaginar el d&#237;a a d&#237;a de muchas de las familias que constituyeron el pueblo de Cartago. En esta l&#237;nea, tambi&#233;n se le da mucha importancia a la relaci&#243;n de Cartago con otras ciudades p&#250;nicas y los proyectos colonizadores que tuvo la ciudad, un tema que en general ha sido ignorado por la historiograf&#237;a contempor&#225;nea, por lo que se agradece ver una investigaci&#243;n seria al respecto. Sin duda, este se ha convertido r&#225;pidamente en uno de mis libros favoritos sobre Cartago.</p><p>Como dije en un principio, me parece que estos tres libros son fundamentales para conocer una historia actualizada de la Cartago p&#250;nica, y sin duda se los recomiendo a cualquier persona &#8211;sin importar su nivel de manejo en la historia cartaginesa&#8211; si quieren empaparse de Cartago y llegar a imaginar en detalle c&#243;mo fue esa gran ciudad que pudo haber cambiado la historia de Occidente.</p><p>Espero no haberlos decepcionado con esta corta lista y sus rese&#241;as. Debo admitir que estoy bien oxidado para las discusiones bibliogr&#225;ficas, pero no pod&#237;a dejar de recomendar estos libros y hacer el ejercicio. Quien quiera comentarlos o ahondar m&#225;s en la bibliograf&#237;a existente sobre Cartago, recuerden que siempre pueden escribirme. Un saludo a quienes me est&#225;n leyendo.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Carthago delenda est]]></title><description><![CDATA[The famous phrase by Cato the Elder that sealed Carthage's fate.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/carthago-delenda-est-7e3</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/carthago-delenda-est-7e3</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 18 Apr 2026 18:03:22 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>In 152 BC, Cato the Elder was part of an embassy that traveled to Carthage to mediate border disputes between the Carthaginians and the Numidians. Upon his return to Rome, the veteran senator launched a fierce campaign to destroy Carthage. Supposedly, Cato ended each of his speeches in the Senate with the phrase Carthago delenda est, or &#8220;Carthage must be destroyed.&#8221; Before long, his efforts bore fruit, and by 146 BC, Carthage was nothing more than ruins. Let&#8217;s look at the story behind this famous phrase.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/carthago-delenda-est?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic" width="1456" height="953" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:953,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:252219,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/194367895?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Bust attributed to Cato the Elder.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Cato the Elder is known for many things. One of these is his role in the destruction of Carthage, for which he was the mastermind. The famous phrase, <em>Carthago delenda est,</em> is a fundamental part of his legacy, reflecting not only Cato&#8217;s hatred and fear of all things Carthaginian, but also the extremes to which he was capable of going in every sphere. It is said that Cato, a veteran of the Second Punic War who had to contend for years with Hannibal&#8217;s troops in Italy, ended all his speeches in the Senate by repeating <em>Carthago delenda est.</em> Let&#8217;s imagine that.</p><p>The truth is that Cato did not spend his entire life ranting and raving that Carthage must be destroyed. It is undoubtedly something that must have crossed his mind many times, but the history of this phrase has a clear beginning, and that is Cato&#8217;s trip to Carthage in 152 BC. The context is set against the backdrop of the peace treaty between Rome and Carthage of 201 BC., which stipulated that the Carthaginians had to seek the approval of the Roman Senate to wage war in Africa, even if those were defensive wars. That clause had allowed the Numidians of King Masinissa, allies of Rome, to systematically seize Carthaginian territory, which brings us to 152 BC, with Cato in Carthage to resolve new territorial disputes between the two peoples.</p><p>That has always led me to wonder what happened during that visit to the Punic city that left Cato so distraught. According to Pliny the Elder (<em>Nat. Hist.</em> 15. 20. 74), upon his return from his trip to Africa, Cato, &#8220;inflamed by his mortal hatred of Carthage and distressed for the safety of his descendants, cried out at every meeting of the Senate that Carthage must be destroyed&#8221; (<em>namque perniciali odio Carthaginis flagrans nepotumque securitatis anxius, cum clamaret omni senatu Carthaginem delendam</em>). The answer is not hard to find, and Pliny already gives us a clue when he says that Cato felt anxious about the safety of his descendants upon seeing the state of affairs in the Punic city.</p><p>In my view, <em>fear</em> is a better word to describe what Cato felt and what drove him to act in that way, doing everything in his power to convince his colleagues in the Senate that Carthage must be destroyed at all costs. The explanation for this lies largely in two factors. The first and most obvious is that Cato and his supporters were acting based on the memory of the experience of the Second Punic War, where Hannibal&#8217;s invasion of Italy was so costly in terms of human lives, the economy and society, that it led to a generational trauma in Rome regarding everything Carthaginian.</p><p>Just to put this into perspective, let&#8217;s look at the numbers; according to the figures provided by Livy, during his more than sixteen years in Italy, Hannibal&#8217;s army caused the deaths of more than 155,000 Roman and Italian allied soldiers, four consuls, and numerous other magistrates such as proconsuls, praetors, and senators&#8212;and these figures do not account for the civilian population or all the hardships of war to which it was exposed. According to Professor Neville Morley&#8217;s calculations (<em>The Transformation of Italy, 225&#8211;28 B.C.</em>, 2001), <strong>it was not until 173 BC that the number of Roman citizens returned to the levels seen prior to Hannibal&#8217;s invasion in 218 BC.</strong></p><p>The second factor explaining Cato&#8217;s reaction is what he witnessed during his visit to Carthage. Written sources provide few details on this matter, but Polybius maintains that by the time of its destruction, Carthage was the richest city in the world (18. 35. 9). This claim, while debatable, finds some support in archaeological evidence that points to a strong resurgence of the Carthaginian economy following its defeat in the Second Punic War. The war indemnity was high and was to be paid to Rome in installments over a period of fifty years, but even that could not weaken the Punic treasury.</p><p>In Carthage, Cato saw a revitalized city, with an impressive system of defenses that turned it into a fortress-city, whose ports saw ships arriving and departing from all over the Mediterranean, causing trade to flourish. Cato was certain: in his view, Carthage&#8217;s resurgence, even if only economic, was enough to pose a threat to the Roman Republic. Therefore, Carthage had to be destroyed.</p><p>Not all Romans shared Cato&#8217;s views, and there was opposition to his campaign to destroy Carthage. This opposition was embodied by Scipio Nasica, who countered Cato by arguing that Carthage&#8217;s existence was beneficial to the Roman Republic, in that the presence of an enemy kept the Roman people and their rulers in a constant state of alertness and harmony. The elimination of that enemy removed the need to cultivate virtuous men, and for the Romans, virtue (<em>virtus</em>) or the lack it could very easily degenerate into vice (<em>vitium</em>).</p><p>The argument with which Cato capped his campaign was the presentation of supposedly fresh figs brought from the area surrounding Carthage to the Roman Senate to demonstrate or symbolize how close the enemy was (Pliny, <em>Nat. Hist.</em> 15. 20. 74&#8211;75). Today, there is a consensus among scholars that these fresh figs could hardly have come from Carthage. In summer, with a headwind blowing from north to south, the journey from Carthage to Ostia, Rome&#8217;s port, took approximately six days. Thus, Cato&#8217;s figs must be viewed as a dramatic flourish of his oratory. The figs, almost certainly grown near Rome, served as a demonstration that brought Cato&#8217;s words about the urgency of destroying Carthage to life, and they achieved their purpose. </p><p>Sallust, writing nearly a century after the destruction of Carthage, recounts this debate in the Senate and the implications for Rome of the demise of its great enemy. In his words:</p><blockquote><p>&#8220;As long as Carthage stood, the Roman Senate and people governed the republic with great moderation and restraint; nor did citizens quarrel among themselves over who should excel in glory or command; the fear of the enemy kept the city in check. But once it shook off this concern, pride and licentiousness took hold of it, evils that prosperity invariably brings in its wake&#8221; (<em>Nam ante Carthaginem delendam populus et senatus romanus placide modesteque inter se rem publicam tractabant, neque gloriae neque dominationis certamen inter civis erat: metus hostilis in bonis artibus civitatem retinebat. Sed ubi illa formido mentibus decessit, scilicet ea, quae res secundae amant, lascivia atque superbia incessere</em>) (B. I. 41).</p></blockquote><p>Sallust, who was born in the early 1st century BC, grew up and lived during a period of crisis and civil wars that would lead to the collapse of the Republic as it was known up to that point and the establishment of the Principate under the first emperor, Augustus. It was inevitable that Romans like him, who saw the greatness of all that their ancestors had conquered by acting as a socio-politically cohesive people, would seek explanations at various points in their history to understand why the Romans were now fighting among themselves while corruption and political polarization took hold of the city. For Sallust, it was all about the <em>metus hostilis</em>, the fear of the enemy, in this case, Carthage.</p><p>As for Cato, he never lived to see the destruction of Carthage, as he died the very year the war began. His descendants, however, lived through the turbulent times following the fall of Carthage and the consequences of their ancestor&#8217;s relentless policies. One of them, Cato the Younger, committed suicide in Utica in 46 BC when the remaining Pompeian forces definitively lost the civil war against Julius Caesar on African soil; shortly thereafter, Caesar would decide to rebuild Carthage. But that&#8217;s another story.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Carthago delenda est]]></title><description><![CDATA[La famosa frase de Cat&#243;n el Viejo que sell&#243; el destino de Cartago.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/carthago-delenda-est</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/carthago-delenda-est</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 18 Apr 2026 18:02:29 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>En el 152 a. C. Cat&#243;n el Viejo fue parte de una embajada que viaj&#243; a Cartago para mediar disputas fronterizas entre cartagineses y n&#250;midas. A su regreso a Roma, el veterano senador inici&#243; una feroz campa&#241;a para destruir Cartago. Supuestamente, Cat&#243;n terminaba cada una de sus intervenciones en el senado con la frase Carthago delenda est, o &#8220;Cartago debe ser destruida&#8221;. En poco tiempo, sus esfuerzos rindieron fruto y para el 146 a. C. Cartago ya no era m&#225;s que ruinas. Veamos la historia detr&#225;s de esta famosa frase.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic" width="1456" height="953" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!DpSw!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F896cf917-6b5a-4ca9-9094-1b2a4210d83f_2327x1523.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Busto atribuido a Cat&#243;n el Viejo.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Cat&#243;n el Viejo es conocido por muchas cosas. Una de esas, es su papel en la destrucci&#243;n de Cartago, de la cual fue el autor intelectual. La famosa frase, <em>Carthago delenda est</em>, es una parte fundamental de su legado, y que refleja no solo el odio y temor de Cat&#243;n por todo lo cartagin&#233;s, sino que tambi&#233;n los extremos a los que era capaz de llegar en todo &#225;mbito. Se dice que Cat&#243;n, un veterano de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica que debi&#243; lidiar por a&#241;os con las tropas de An&#237;bal en Italia, terminaba todas sus intervenciones en el senado repitiendo <em>Carthago delenda est. </em>Imagin&#233;moslo. </p><p>La realidad es que Cat&#243;n no pas&#243; toda su vida rabeando y repitiendo que Cartago deb&#237;a ser destruida. Sin duda es algo que se debe haber cruzado por su mente muchas veces, pero la historia de esta frase tiene un comienzo bien definido, y es con el viaje de Cat&#243;n a Cartago en el 152 a. C. El contexto se da en el marco del tratado de paz entre Roma y Cartago del 201 a. C., el cual establec&#237;a que los cartagineses deb&#237;an solicitar la aprobaci&#243;n del senado romano para llevar a cabo la guerra en &#193;frica, aun cuando fuesen guerras defensivas. Esa cl&#225;usula hab&#237;a permitido a los n&#250;midas del rey Masinisa, aliados de Roma, apropiarse de territorio cartagin&#233;s sistem&#225;ticamente, lo que nos lleva al 152 a. C., con Cat&#243;n en Cartago para resolver nuevas disputas territoriales entre ambos pueblos. </p><p>Eso siempre me ha llevado a preguntarme qu&#233; pas&#243; en esa visita a la ciudad p&#250;nica que dej&#243; tan trastornado a Cat&#243;n. Seg&#250;n Plinio el Viejo (<em>Hist. Nat.</em> 15. 20. 74), a su regreso de su viaje a &#193;frica Cat&#243;n, &#8220;enardecido por su odio mortal a Cartago y angustiado por la seguridad de sus descendientes clamaba en todas las reuniones del Senado que Cartago deb&#237;a ser destruida&#8221; (<em>namque perniciali odio Carthaginis flagrans nepotumque securitatis anxius, cum clamaret omni senatu Carthaginem delendam</em>). La respuesta no es dif&#237;cil de encontrar, y Plinio ya nos da a entender algo cuando dice que Cat&#243;n sinti&#243; angustia por la seguridad de sus descendientes al ver el estado de las cosas en la ciudad p&#250;nica. </p><p>A mi parecer, <em>miedo </em>es una mejor palabra para describir qu&#233; fue lo que sinti&#243; Cat&#243;n y lo que lo hizo actuar de esa forma, buscando por todos los medios convencer a sus colegas en el senado de que Cartago deb&#237;a ser destruida a toda costa. La explicaci&#243;n de esto se encuentra en gran medida en dos factores. El primero y m&#225;s obvio, es que Cat&#243;n y sus partidarios actuaban en base al recuerdo de la experiencia de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, donde la invasi&#243;n de An&#237;bal a Italia fue tan costosa en t&#233;rminos de vidas humanas, econ&#243;micos y sociales, que llev&#243; a un trauma generacional en Roma con respecto a todo lo cartagin&#233;s. </p><p>Solo para dimensionarlo, llevemos esto a los n&#250;meros; siguiendo los n&#250;meros entregados por Livio, en sus m&#225;s de diecis&#233;is a&#241;os en Italia, el ej&#233;rcito de An&#237;bal provoc&#243; la muerte de m&#225;s de ciento cincuenta y cinco mil soldados romanos y aliados it&#225;licos, cuatro c&#243;nsules y numerosos otros magistrados como proc&#243;nsules, pretores y senadores, y estos son n&#250;meros que no consideran la poblaci&#243;n civil y todas las penurias de la guerra a la que estuvo expuesta. Seg&#250;n los c&#225;lculos del profesor Neville Morley (<em>The Transformation of Italy, 225-28 B.C., </em>2001) <strong>reci&#233;n en el a&#241;o 173 a. C. la cantidad de ciudadanos romanos recuper&#243; los mismos n&#250;meros previo a la invasi&#243;n de An&#237;bal en el 218 a. C.</strong></p><p>El segundo factor que explica la reacci&#243;n de Cat&#243;n es lo que vio en su visita a Cartago. Las fuentes escritas no dan muchos detalles al respecto, pero Polibio sostiene que para la &#233;poca de su destrucci&#243;n, Cartago era la ciudad m&#225;s rica del mundo (18. 35. 9). Esta afirmaci&#243;n, si bien discutible, encuentra cierto asidero en la evidencia arqueol&#243;gica que da cuenta de un fuerte resurgimiento de la econom&#237;a cartaginesa luego de su derrota en la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica. La indemnizaci&#243;n de guerra era alta, y deb&#237;a ser pagada a Roma en cuotas en un plazo de cincuenta a&#241;os, pero ni eso pudo debilitar las arcas fiscales p&#250;nicas. </p><p>En Cartago, Cat&#243;n vio una ciudad revitalizada, con un sistema de defensas impresionantes que la convert&#237;an en una ciudad-fortaleza, a cuyos puertos sal&#237;an y llegaban barcos desde todas partes del Mediterr&#225;neo, haciendo florecer el comercio. Cat&#243;n lo ten&#237;a claro: desde su punto de vista, el resurgimiento de Cartago, aunque fuese en el &#225;mbito econ&#243;mico, era suficiente para representar una amenaza para la Rep&#250;blica romana. Por ende, Cartago deb&#237;a ser destruida.</p><p>No todos los romanos pensaban como Cat&#243;n, y hubo oposici&#243;n a su campa&#241;a por destruir Cartago. Esta se materializ&#243; en la figura de Escipi&#243;n Nasica, quien contraven&#237;a a Cat&#243;n argumentando que la existencia de Cartago era beneficiosa para la rep&#250;blica romana, en cuanto que la existencia del enemigo manten&#237;a al pueblo romano y sus gobernantes en un constante estado de alerta y concordia. La eliminaci&#243;n de dicho enemigo quitaba la necesidad de crear hombres virtuosos, y para los romanos la virtud (<em>virtus</em>) o la falta de esta,<em> </em>pod&#237;a degenerar muy f&#225;cilmente en el vicio (<em>vitium</em>). </p><p>El argumento con el que Cat&#243;n coron&#243; su campa&#241;a fue con la presentaci&#243;n de supuestos higos frescos tra&#237;dos del territorio circundante de Cartago al senado de Roma para demostrar o simbolizar lo cerca que se encontraba el enemigo (Plin. <em>Hist. Nat. </em>15. 20. 74-75). Hoy, hay consenso entre los acad&#233;micos que estos higos frescos dif&#237;cilmente pod&#237;an haber provenido de Cartago. En verano, y con un viento en contra en direcci&#243;n norte-sur, el viaje desde Cartago a Ostia, el puerto de Roma, era de aproximadamente seis d&#237;as. As&#237;, hay que pensar en los higos de Cat&#243;n como un desplante esc&#233;nico de su oratoria. Los higos, con toda seguridad cultivados cerca de Roma, serv&#237;an como una demostraci&#243;n que materializaba las palabras de Cat&#243;n sobre la urgencia de destruir Cartago, y lograron su prop&#243;sito. </p><p>Salustio, escribiendo cerca de un siglo despu&#233;s de la destrucci&#243;n de Cartago, da un recuento de este debate en el senado y las implicancias que tuvo para Roma la desaparici&#243;n de su gran enemiga. En sus palabras: </p><blockquote><p>&#8220;Mientras estuvo en pie Cartago, el Senado y pueblo romano administraban la rep&#250;blica con gran moderaci&#243;n y templanza; ni entre ciudadanos se disputaba sobre qui&#233;n hab&#237;a de sobresalir en la gloria o en el mando; el miedo del enemigo conten&#237;a a la ciudad en su deber. Pero luego que sacudi&#243; de s&#237; este cuidado, se apoderaron de ella la soberbia y la lascivia, males que trae regularmente consigo la prosperidad&#8221; (<em>Nam ante Carthaginem delendam populus et senatus romanus placide modesteque inter se rem publicam tractabant, neque gloriae neque dominationis certamen inter civis erat: metus hostilis in bonis artibus civitatem retinebat. Sed ubi illa formido mentibus decessit, scilicet ea, quae res secundae amant, lascivia atque superbia incessere</em>) (B. I. 41).</p></blockquote><p>Salustio, que naci&#243; a inicios del siglo I a. C., creci&#243; y vivi&#243; en el per&#237;odo de crisis y guerras civiles que llevar&#237;an a la desintegraci&#243;n de la rep&#250;blica como era conocida hasta entonces y la instauraci&#243;n del principado con el primer emperador, Augusto. Era inevitable que romanos como &#233;l, que ve&#237;an la grandeza de todo lo que hab&#237;an conquistado sus antepasados actuando como un pueblo sociopol&#237;ticamente cohesionado, buscasen explicaciones en distintos puntos de su historia para comprender por qu&#233; los romanos ahora luchaban entre ellos mientras que la corrupci&#243;n y la polarizaci&#243;n pol&#237;tica se tomaban la ciudad. Para Salustio, todo se trataba del <em>metus hostilis, </em>el miedo al enemigo, en este caso, a Cartago.</p><p>En cuanto a Cat&#243;n, no alcanz&#243; a enterarse de la destrucci&#243;n de Cartago ya que muri&#243; el mismo a&#241;o en que comenz&#243; la guerra. Sus descendientes, sin embargo, vivieron los turbulentos tiempos posteriores a la ca&#237;da de Cartago y las consecuencias de la implacable pol&#237;tica de su antepasado. Uno de ellos, Cat&#243;n el Joven, se suicid&#243; en &#218;tica el 46 a. C. cuando los remanentes pompeyanos perdieron definitivamente la guerra civil contra Julio C&#233;sar en terreno africano, quien poco tiempo despu&#233;s tomar&#237;a la decisi&#243;n de refundar Cartago. Pero esa es otra historia.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Hannibal and Scipio at Ephesus]]></title><description><![CDATA[A meeting for posterity]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/hannibal-and-scipio-at-ephesus</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/hannibal-and-scipio-at-ephesus</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 29 Mar 2026 20:16:12 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>In 193 BC, two of the most celebrated generals of antiquity and bitter enemies, met in the city of Ephesus. One had invaded the other&#8217;s lands and defeated his people for more than fifteen humiliating years; the other defeated him once and for all, bringing an end to a war that ultimately shaped the history of the West. A meeting for posterity that offers us more than one lesson to ponder.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/anibal-y-escipion-en-efeso?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic" width="1068" height="600" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:600,&quot;width&quot;:1068,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:126181,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/192064781?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Scipio (left) and Hannibal (right) meet before the Battle of Zama. Artist unknown (if anyone knows the artist, please mention it in the comments).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>The epic of the Punic Wars has left us with so many stories, and it is inevitable that when we speak of them, the first thing that comes to mind for many of us is the image of Hannibal, the undisputed central figure of the Second Punic War, the conflict that would shape the future of Western history. Perhaps less well-known and revered&#8212;even in the Roman world&#8212;than Hannibal himself is his great enemy, Scipio Africanus, the Roman general who finally managed to defeat him after more than sixteen years of war. Undoubtedly, two giants of antiquity who, despite their fierce enmity, forged certain bonds&#8212;ranging from shared stories and experiences to feelings of respect and admiration&#8212;that led them to interact on more than one occasion, leaving us with these curious and memorable anecdotes.</p><p>In 193 BC, Hannibal was in Ephesus as a member of the court of the Seleucid king Antiochus III, who was embroiled in a tense diplomatic standoff with the Romans over control of Greece. At that time, the various Greek cities and towns were being squeezed by the expanding spheres of influence of the Romans and Seleucids, as well as by the diminished claims that Macedonia still held in the region. The Aetolians urged Antiochus to intervene in Greece to break the <em>status quo</em> established by the Romans after defeating Philip V of Macedonia at Cynoscephalae (197 BC). Both sides made diplomatic efforts that culminated in a Seleucid embassy to Rome, which was demanded to ensure that Antiochus withdraw from Europe and confine his sphere of influence to Asia. The response was to be delivered to the Romans in Ephesus, so they sent their own embassy to the city in 193 BC.</p><p>Livy, our primary source for this meeting, states that the senators chosen to form the Roman delegation were Publius Sulpicius, Publius Aelius, and Publius Vilius (34.59.8), but he cites another source, the Roman historian Gaius Acilius, who claims that one of the delegates sent to Ephesus was Scipio Africanus. Livy elaborates on the episode recounted by Gaius Acilius, in which Scipio held an informal meeting with Hannibal in the city. During this encounter&#8212;an act of mutual curiosity and recognition&#8212;the two generals engaged in a rather remarkable conversation, considering who they were and the history they shared.</p><p>The conversation, which was surely overheard by both men&#8217;s closest confidants, must have taken place in a relaxed atmosphere, and the admiration they felt for one another must have been palpable to everyone in the chamber, temple, or bathhouse in Ephesus where they may have met. Thus, at one point Scipio asked Hannibal whom he considered the greatest general in all of history, and Hannibal replied that it was Alexander the Great, because with a handful of men he had defeated much larger armies and had reached regions beyond the known world. Then Scipio asked whom he ranked second, and Hannibal replied that it was Pyrrhus, for he had been the first to teach the art of setting up a good military camp, and he was the best at choosing battlefields and organizing defenses. Moreover, he was so charismatic that even the peoples of Italy had rallied to his cause in his war against Rome. Then Scipio asked about the third place, and Hannibal replied that he would undoubtedly place himself in third place.</p><p>According to Gaius Acilius&#8217;s account, Scipio&#8217;s reaction was to burst out laughing; once he had composed himself, he asked Hannibal where he would have ranked himself had he won at Zama, to which the Carthaginian general replied that he would have placed himself ahead of Alexander and Pyrrhus, and of any other general. Scipio was surprised by the answer and at the same time felt flattered and recognized, since Hannibal placed him as that special cornerstone that would have led him to become the greatest general of history. Scipio was the great challenge that Hannibal could not overcome. Thus, he acknowledged his importance, even though he left him off his famous list of the three greatest generals of all time (Livy, 35.14.5&#8211;12).</p><p>There are several points to be made about this anecdote from Roman history. To begin with, if we are to believe Gaius Acilius&#8217;s account, this was not the first encounter between Hannibal and Scipio. From there comes the illustration I chose for this article, which depicts the meeting the two men held before the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. According to Livy (30.29&#8211;31.1&#8211;10), who recounts in detail the speeches that both generals are said to have delivered to one another, Hannibal initiated the conversation to, with great rhetoric, request terms of peace that would avert the confrontation that was on the verge of breaking out.</p><p>In short, the negotiations proved fruitless because Scipio demanded, in addition to the terms that had already been stipulated in a failed attempt at negotiations the previous year, which would have confined Carthage&#8217;s sphere of influence to Africa (by which the Romans meant the region of present-day Tunisia), compensation for the attack on the Roman embassy during those negotiations. Hannibal refused this demand, and as a result, the Roman and Carthaginian armies advanced toward each other on the historic plains of Zama. For his victory, Scipio was given the nickname <em>Africanus</em>.</p><p>The meeting between the two and the subsequent Battle of Zama marked the culmination of a series of close encounters for Hannibal and Scipio. First, Scipio was a teenager when Hannibal invaded Italy and witnessed the Carthaginian general defeat his father, who nearly lost his life at the Battle of Ticinus. He also survived the disaster at Cannae two years later when Hannibal, executing what was his masterpiece, destroyed a Roman army of 80,000 men. In that sense, Scipio knew very well what it was like to face and be defeated by Hannibal.</p><p>In Hispania, Scipio&#8217;s father and uncle were annihilated by Hannibal&#8217;s brothers, Hasdrubal and Mago, after years of arduous combat, and it was in Hispania itself that Scipio began to consolidate his political and military career, confronting and defeating both Hasdrubal and Mago, thereby dismantling Carthaginian power in the region. Their clash at Zama was not merely a confrontation between two great generals, but the culmination of a feud between two families that spanned the entire Second Punic War and featured many prominent figures.</p><p>It may seem strange to some that I speak of mutual admiration between the two during their meeting in Ephesus, especially given the history shared by their families (<strong>let us not forget that Scipio&#8217;s father and uncle died fighting against Hannibal&#8217;s brothers</strong>). There is a very important factor that explains why Scipio&#8212;or any Roman&#8212;might have come to feel, if not admiration, at least a great deal of respect for the figure of Hannibal, and that is the fact that the Carthaginian general used to honor the bodies of Roman generals and officers who had fallen in battle by offering them funeral rites, the most emblematic cases being those of the consul Aemilius Paullus, who died at Cannae, and the consul Marcellus, who died in an ambush. Given this track record, it is highly likely that the bodies of Scipio&#8217;s father and uncle received similar treatment from Hannibal&#8217;s brothers.</p><p>Added to all this is the natural curiosity and admiration that each must have felt for the other, as men of war that they were, raised in a warrior <em>ethos</em> deeply influenced by the figure of Alexander the Great, where there was room to recognize honor in the enemy. I am certain that Scipio admired what Hannibal represented as a general, and that Hannibal, for his part, was aware of Scipio&#8217;s potential from the very beginning.</p><p>In 196 BC, when Hannibal was sophet of Carthage (the highest administrative office in the Carthaginian state) and was implementing ambitious democratic reforms, a Carthaginian embassy aligned with aristocratic interests traveled to Rome to slander him in order to prompt the Romans to intervene in his government, which they did. Ironically, the person who most strongly opposed this Roman intervention in Hannibal&#8217;s administration was his bitter enemy, Scipio Africanus. In the words of Livy (33. 47. 4&#8211;5):</p><blockquote><p><em>Publius Scipio Africanus vehemently opposed this, considering it unbecoming of the dignity of the Roman people to support the attacks of Hannibal&#8217;s accusers or to interfere with the authority of the Republic in the partisan politics of Carthage, not content with having defeated Hannibal in open battle and treating him as if he were a criminal against whom they would appear accusing, swearing oaths, and testifying.</em></p></blockquote><p>It was precisely this Roman intervention that led Hannibal to go into exile from Carthage and eventually seek refuge at the court of King Antiochus III in Ephesus. That brings us back to that day in 193 BC when the two generals met in the city and decided to give us this incredible historical anecdote. The two greatest generals of their time, who had been bitter enemies alongside their families for over a decade, and who ultimately settled everything on the battlefield, engaged in a lively debate over who were the greatest generals in history. A conversation that no one in Ephesus would have wanted to miss, and one that many of us today don&#8217;t want to miss either.</p><p>I&#8217;ll end with one last point. In modern warfare, the concept of honor has largely succumbed to the dehumanization of the enemy. Interactions like Hannibal&#8217;s with Scipio, while not frequent, are not exceptional in history, but we won&#8217;t find this in today&#8217;s world, and I think that&#8217;s something worth reflecting on.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Aníbal y Escipión en Éfeso]]></title><description><![CDATA[Un encuentro para la posteridad.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/anibal-y-escipion-en-efeso</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/anibal-y-escipion-en-efeso</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 29 Mar 2026 20:14:48 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>En el 193 a. C. dos de los generales m&#225;s aclamados de la Antig&#252;edad y ac&#233;rrimos enemigos, se encontraron en la ciudad de &#201;feso. Uno hab&#237;a invadido sus tierras y derrotado a su pueblo durante m&#225;s de quince humillantes a&#241;os, el otro lo venci&#243; de forma definitiva, poni&#233;ndole fin a una guerra que termin&#243; definiendo la historia de Occidente. Un encuentro para la posteridad que nos puede dejar m&#225;s de una reflexi&#243;n.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic" width="1068" height="600" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:600,&quot;width&quot;:1068,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:126181,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/heic&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/192064781?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ZpSl!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F22537a77-7a31-4b00-a3f4-be52c743e3ab_1068x600.heic 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Escipi&#243;n (izquierda) y An&#237;bal (derecha) se entrevistan antes de la batalla de Zama. Autor desconocido (si alguien lo conoce, por favor mencionar en comentarios).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Son tantas las historias que nos ha dejado la &#233;pica de las Guerras P&#250;nicas, y es inevitable que al hablar de estas lo primero que a muchos se nos venga a la mente es la imagen de An&#237;bal, el incuestionable gran protagonista de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, la que definir&#237;a el futuro de la historia de Occidente. Quiz&#225;s menos conocido y venerado &#8211;incluso en el mundo romano&#8211; que el propio An&#237;bal, es su gran enemigo Escipi&#243;n Africano, el general romano que finalmente logr&#243; derrotarlo luego de m&#225;s de diecis&#233;is a&#241;os de guerra. Sin duda, dos colosos de la Antig&#252;edad que a pesar de su poderosa enemistad, establecieron ciertos lazos, desde historias y experiencias comunes a sentimientos de respeto y admiraci&#243;n, que los llevaron a interactuar en m&#225;s de una ocasi&#243;n, dej&#225;ndonos estas curiosas y memorables an&#233;cdotas. </p><p>En el 193 a. C. An&#237;bal se encontraba en &#201;feso como parte de la corte del rey sel&#233;ucida Ant&#237;oco III, quien estaba en una tensa situaci&#243;n diplom&#225;tica con los romanos por el control de Grecia. En esa &#233;poca, las distintas ciudades y pueblos griegos estaban siendo arrinconados por las crecientes esferas de influencia de los romanos y sel&#233;ucidas, y las reducidas pretensiones que Macedonia aun manten&#237;a en la zona. Los etolios instaron a Ant&#237;oco a interferir en Grecia para romper el <em>status quo </em>establecido por los romanos luego de derrotar a Filipo V de Macedonia en Cinos&#233;falas (197 a. C.). Ambos bandos hicieron esfuerzos diplom&#225;ticos que culminaron con una embajada sel&#233;ucida en Roma a la que se le exigi&#243; que Ant&#237;oco se retirase de Europa y mantuviese su zona de influencia recluida a Asia. La respuesta ser&#237;a entregada a los romanos en &#201;feso, por lo que estos enviaron su propia embajada a la ciudad en el 193 a. C.</p><p>Tito Livio, nuestra principal fuente para este encuentro, sostiene que los elegidos para conformar la delegaci&#243;n romana fueron los senadores Publio Sulpicio, Publio Elio y Publio Vilio (34. 59. 8), pero menciona otra fuente, el historiador romano Cayo Acilio, quien sostiene que uno de los delegados enviados a &#201;feso fue Escipi&#243;n Africano. Livio se expande en el episodio narrado por Cayo Acilio, donde Escipi&#243;n mantuvo un encuentro informal con An&#237;bal en la ciudad. En este encuentro, un acto de curiosidad y reconocimiento del uno hacia el otro, los dos generales mantuvieron una conversaci&#243;n bastante incre&#237;ble, considerando quienes eran y la historia que compart&#237;an.</p><p>La conversaci&#243;n, que de seguro fue escuchada por los hombres de mayor confianza de ambos, debe haberse dado en un ambiente de distensi&#243;n, y la admiraci&#243;n que sent&#237;an el uno por el otro debe haber sido latente a todos en la c&#225;mara, templo o terma de &#201;feso en la que se pudieron haber encontrado. As&#237;, en un punto Escipi&#243;n lleg&#243; a preguntarle a An&#237;bal a quien consideraba el general m&#225;s grande de toda la historia, y An&#237;bal respondi&#243; que Alejandro Magno, porque con un pu&#241;ado de hombres hab&#237;a derrotado ej&#233;rcitos mucho m&#225;s grandes y hab&#237;a alcanzado regiones retomas m&#225;s all&#225; del mundo conocido. Entonces Escipi&#243;n pregunt&#243; a qui&#233;n pon&#237;a en segundo lugar, y An&#237;bal respondi&#243; que a Pirro, pues hab&#237;a sido el primero en ense&#241;ar el arte de levantar un buen campamento militar, y que fue el mejor para elegir los terrenos de las batallas y organizar defensas. Adem&#225;s, fue tan carism&#225;tico, que incluso los pueblos de Italia se hab&#237;an pasado a su causa en su guerra contra Roma. Entonces Escipi&#243;n pregunt&#243; por el tercer lugar, y An&#237;bal respondi&#243; que sin duda se pon&#237;a a s&#237; mismo en tercer lugar. </p><p>La reacci&#243;n de Escipi&#243;n, seg&#250;n la narraci&#243;n de Cayo Acilio, fue estallar en una carcajada, y luego de serenarse le pregunt&#243; a An&#237;bal en qu&#233; lugar se habr&#237;a puesto si &#233;l hubiese vencido en Zama, a lo que el general cartagin&#233;s respondi&#243; que se habr&#237;a puesto por delante de Alejandro y Pirro, y de cualquier otro general. Escipi&#243;n qued&#243; sorprendido por la respuesta y a la vez se sinti&#243; adulado y reconocido, ya que An&#237;bal lo puso como esa piedra especial que lo habr&#237;a llevado a convertirse en el general m&#225;s grande de toda la historia. Escipi&#243;n era el gran desaf&#237;o que An&#237;bal no pudo superar. As&#237;, reconoc&#237;a su importancia, aun cuando lo dej&#243; fuera de su famosa lista de los tres generales m&#225;s grandes de todos los tiempos (Livio, 35. 14. 5-12).</p><p>Hay varias cosas que decir sobre esta an&#233;cdota de la historia romana. Para partir, y si damos cr&#233;dito al relato de Cayo Acilio, este no fue el primer encuentro entre An&#237;bal y Escipi&#243;n. De ah&#237; viene la iliustraci&#243;n que escog&#237; para este art&#237;culo, que representa la entrevista que sostuvieron ambos antes de la batalla de Zama en el 202 a. C. Seg&#250;n Livio, (30. 29-31. 1-10), que narra en detalle los discursos que ambos generales habr&#237;an enunciado al otro, An&#237;bal inici&#243; la conversaci&#243;n para, con mucha ret&#243;rica, solicitar t&#233;rminos de paz que evitasen el enfrentamiento que estaba al borde de producirse. </p><p>En corto, las negociaciones resultaron infructuosas ya que Escipi&#243;n solicit&#243;, adem&#225;s de las condiciones que ya se hab&#237;an estipulado en un fallido intento de negociaciones del a&#241;o interior que ve&#237;a la zona de influencia de Cartago confinada a &#193;frica (y con esto los romanos se refer&#237;an a la regi&#243;n de la actual T&#250;nez) el pago de una indemnizaci&#243;n por el ataque producido a la embajada romana en dichas negociaciones. Algo a lo que An&#237;bal se neg&#243; y como consecuencia los ej&#233;rcitos romanos y cartagin&#233;s avanzaron el uno sobre el otro en las hist&#243;ricas planicies de Zama. Por su victoria, Escipi&#243;n recibi&#243; el sobrenombre de <em>Africanus. </em></p><p>La entrevista entre ambos y la posterior batalla de Zama son la culminaci&#243;n de una serie de experiencias cercanas para An&#237;bal y Escipi&#243;n. En primer lugar, Escipi&#243;n era un adolescente cuando An&#237;bal invadi&#243; Italia y vio como el general cartagin&#233;s derrotaba a su padre, quien casi pierde la vida en la batalla del Tesino. Tambi&#233;n sobrevivi&#243; al desastre de Cannae dos a&#241;os despu&#233;s cuando An&#237;bal, ejecutando lo que fue su obra maestra, destruy&#243; un ej&#233;rcito romano de 80 mil hombres. En ese sentido, Escipi&#243;n conoc&#237;a muy bien lo que era experimentar enfrentar y ser derrotado por An&#237;bal.</p><p>En Hispania, el padre y el t&#237;o de Escipi&#243;n fueron aniquilados por los hermanos de An&#237;bal, Asdr&#250;bal y Mag&#243;n, luego de arduos a&#241;os de combate, y fue en la misma Hispania donde Escipi&#243;n comenz&#243; a consolidar su carrera pol&#237;tica y militar, enfrent&#225;ndose y derrotando tanto a Asdr&#250;bal como a Mag&#243;n, desbaratando as&#237; el poder cartagin&#233;s en la regi&#243;n. Su encuentro en Zama no era solo el encuentro de dos grandes generales, sino que la culminaci&#243;n de una lucha entre dos familias que se extendi&#243; a lo largo de toda la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, y que tuvo muchos y destacados protagonistas.</p><p>Quiz&#225;s para algunos pueda parecer extra&#241;o que hable de admiraci&#243;n por parte de ambos en su encuentro en &#201;feso, sobre todo considerando el historial que compart&#237;an sus familias (<strong>tengamos bien presentes que el padre y el t&#237;o de Escipi&#243;n murieron luchando contra los hermanos de An&#237;bal</strong>). Hay un factor muy importante que explica por qu&#233; Escipi&#243;n, o cualquier romano, podr&#237;a haber llegado a sentir si no admiraci&#243;n, al menos mucho respeto por la figura de An&#237;bal, y es el hecho de que el general cartagin&#233;s sol&#237;a honrar los cuerpos de los generales y oficiales romanos ca&#237;dos en combate ofreci&#233;ndoles las exequias funerarias, siendo los casos m&#225;s emblem&#225;ticos los del c&#243;nsul Emilio Paulo, fallecido en Cannae, y el c&#243;nsul Marcelo, quien muri&#243; en una emboscada. Con ese historial, es muy probable que los cuerpos del padre y t&#237;o de Escipi&#243;n hayan recibido tratos similares por parte de los hermanos de An&#237;bal.</p><p>A todo esto se debe sumar la curiosidad y admiraci&#243;n natural que ambos deben haber producido en el otro, como hombres de guerra que eran, educados en un <em>ethos </em>guerrero profundamente influenciado por la figura de Alejandro Magno, donde hab&#237;a espacio para reconocer el honor en la figura del enemigo. Estoy seguro de que Escipi&#243;n admiraba lo que An&#237;bal representaba como general, y que por su parte, An&#237;bal desde un inicio fue consciente del potencial de Escipi&#243;n.</p><p>En el 196 a. C., cuando An&#237;bal era <em>sufete</em> de Cartago (m&#225;xima magistratura administrativa del estado cartagin&#233;s) y estaba llevando a cabo ambiciosas reformas democr&#225;ticas, una embajada cartaginesa alineada a los intereses aristocr&#225;ticos viaj&#243; a Roma para difamarlo con el objetivo de que los romanos interviniesen su gobierno, lo cual hicieron. Ir&#243;nicamente, quien m&#225;s se opuso a esta intervenci&#243;n romana a la administraci&#243;n de An&#237;bal fue su ac&#233;rrimo enemigo, Escipi&#243;n<em> </em>Africano<em>. </em>En palabras de Livio (33. 47. 4-5):</p><blockquote><p><em>Insistentemente se opuso Publio Escipi&#243;n Africano, que consideraba impropio de la dignidad del pueblo romano apoyar los ataques de los acusadores de An&#237;bal o entrometer la autoridad de la Rep&#250;blica en las pol&#237;ticas partidistas de Cartago, no content&#225;ndose con haber derrotado a An&#237;bal en campo abierto y trat&#225;ndolo como si fuera un criminal contra el que aparecer&#237;an acusando, prestando juramento y declarando en su contra</em>.</p></blockquote><p>Fue precisamente esta intervenci&#243;n romana la que llev&#243; a An&#237;bal a exiliarse de Cartago y eventualmente buscar refugio en la corte del rey Ant&#237;oco III en &#201;feso. Eso nos lleva nuevamente a ese d&#237;a del a&#241;o 193 a. C. en que ambos generales se encontraron en la ciudad y decidieron regalarnos esta incre&#237;ble an&#233;cdota hist&#243;rica. Los dos m&#225;s grandes generales de su tiempo, que fueron ac&#233;rrimos enemigos junto a sus familias por m&#225;s de una d&#233;cada, y que terminaron definiendo todo en el campo de batalla, discutiendo animadamente sobre quienes eran los mejores generales de la historia. Una conversaci&#243;n que nadie en &#201;feso se habr&#237;a querido perder, y que muchos hoy en d&#237;a tampoco queremos perdernos.</p><p>Termino con un &#250;ltimo punto. En la guerra moderna el concepto del honor ha sucumbido en gran medida a la deshumanizaci&#243;n del enemigo. Interacciones como las de An&#237;bal con Escipi&#243;n, si bien no son frecuentes, no son excepcionales en la historia, pero esto no lo vamos a encontrar en el mundo de hoy, y me parece que eso es algo sobre lo que vale la pena reflexionar.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Trojan War]]></title><description><![CDATA[When myth and truth become blurred.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-trojan-war</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-trojan-war</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 17 Mar 2026 20:57:14 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>The story of the Trojan War, the Iliad, is the foundational epic narrative of Greek culture and, by extension, of Western culture. The vast majority of us, in one way or another, have encountered this story throughout our lives. The epic battles between legendary heroes before the walls of Troy, Achilles&#8217; ambition, Hector&#8217;s honor, Odysseus&#8217; perspective, and the wooden horse that ended the long siege laid the foundation for a collective imagination and a system of values that ultimately shaped the historical memory of our ancestors. But did the Trojan War really happen?</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/la-guerra-de-troya?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg" width="1280" height="985" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:985,&quot;width&quot;:1280,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:419430,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/190069296?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>The Entry of the Trojan Horse</em> by Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo (1773).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>On December 22 of the last year, the trailer of the director Christopher Nolan&#8217;s new film, <em>The Odyssey</em>, was released, and it sparked a lot of buzz on social media. On one hand, there are those who, like me, watched it without fully understanding what Nolan was trying to show us in the trailer, only to later realize that it was a disconcerting&#8212;I struggle to find an appropriate word that isn&#8217;t too harsh&#8212;depiction of the Mycenaean world and the end of the Bronze Age. Then there are those who criticized those of us who were baffled, arguing that since the Trojan War never actually happened, any depictions of it should be subject to complete creative freedom. Of course, there are also those who aren&#8217;t interested in this kind of debate and will watch the film and enjoy it&#8212;or not&#8212;based on other criteria, but I want to focus on this discussion, which leads to the fundamental question of the existence of the Trojan War, thereby providing a criterion for judging whether depictions of it are correct, appropriate, disconcerting&#8212;whatever you want to call it.</p><p>Did the city of Troy actually exist, and in particular, was there a war like the one Homer describes in his <em>Iliad</em>? With the excavations that began in the second half of the 19th century, archaeological remains of a major settlement were discovered in present-day Turkey, near the Dardanelles Strait; its core, located on what is now the hill of Hisarlik, was identified as the city of Troy. The Greeks themselves, since the times of Homer, had an idea of where the city was located, identifying it with the Troy where the Persian king Xerxes made sacrifices before his invasion of Greece in 480 BC (Herodotus 7.43). The ruins discovered at Hisarlik reveal several layers of occupation at the site, making the existence of a city that the Greeks recognized as Troy something that is somewhat absurd to dispute. In antiquity, there was a city on the northwestern coast of Anatolia that the Hellenistic world recognized as Troy, which had supposedly been destroyed in the distant past by various Greek peoples in a war masterfully narrated by Homer in the late 8th century BC.</p><p>Today, there is a consensus among archaeologists that both level VI and level VII of the site of Troy were destroyed at some point in their history and were eventually repopulated. While the remains of Troy VI date to around 1250 BC, coinciding with the period in which Homer sets the Trojan War, archaeologists have been unable to determine the causes of its destruction, as there is very little evidence to support the idea of a large-scale conflict at that time. On the other hand, in the case of Troy VII, there is sufficient evidence to determine that the city was destroyed by human action, which would align with the context described by Homer in his works. The problem is that the destruction of Troy VII would have occurred between 1100 and 1000 BC, presenting a time frame that is too far removed from the events narrated by Homer.</p><p>This could be resolved by considering the possibility that Homer himself made a mistake in dating the events he recounted&#8212;remember that these were events that would have occurred at least three hundred years before they were written down&#8212;but that is not the point. <strong>The fact is that the city the Greeks identified as Troy in antiquity was destroyed twice in the twilight of the Bronze Age.</strong> To doubt the existence of Troy given this background is untenable.</p><p>Now, establishing the existence of the city of Troy and the existence of a Trojan War as narrated by Homer are two very different things. We&#8217;ve already seen that the city was destroyed at least twice between 1250 and 1000 BC, one of those times by human action, so there are grounds to believe that Homer drew inspiration from a conflict that actually took place. That&#8217;s all we have so far, but if we look for evidence in the records of other kingdoms or great empires of the time, such as the Hittite Empire, we find some very interesting things that are worth examining.</p><p>Based on surviving letters and records from the Hittite Empire, the philologist Forrer suggested in the mid-20th century that Homer&#8217;s Troy might have been located in the region known to the Hittites as Wilusa or Taruisa, from which the names Ilion and Troy would have derived. If so, then there would be further evidence supporting the existence of a Troy at least similar to Homer&#8217;s in the form of letters between the Hittite rulers and their various vassals. Three of these letters have been preserved on fragments of clay tablets dating from 1295 BC to 1209 BC, which mention a region called Wilusa, located on the northwestern edge of the Hittite empire, with a capital of the same name, Wilusa.</p><p>In a nutshell, these letters describe certain events that shed light on a context in which a war like the Trojan War could have taken place: first, an invasion led by a warlord named Piyamadaru, who occupied Wilusa and was driven out of the city by Hittite forces; then, the dethronement of the king of Wilusa, Walmuu, several decades later. One of the letters in particular is addressed to the king of the <em>Ahhiyawa</em>, a term identified by Forrer as the Hittite word for <em>Achaeans</em>, as the Greeks are commonly referred to in the <em>Iliad</em>. In this letter, the Hittite king discusses the problem posed for both kingdoms by the fact that the <em>Ahhiyawa</em> had taken in Piyamandaru after he had been expelled from Wilusa.</p><p>In short, we can see a political conflict&#8212;the outcome of which remains unknown&#8212;between the Hittites and the <em>Ahhiyawa</em>, the supposed Achaeans or Greeks, which arose over control of the city of Wilusa in the 13th century BC. All of this assumes we accept Forrer&#8217;s premise, which remains widely accepted in academic circles today.</p><p>What can we conclude from all this? That the context just described makes it plausible that an armed conflict existed between the Achaeans and the kingdom of Ilion (Wilusa to the Hittites) throughout the 13th century BC. It is difficult to give definitive answers, as there are still many gaps that prevent us from fitting all the pieces together, but in my opinion, given the existing evidence, the possibility of a Trojan War cannot be ruled out. If we&#8217;re talking about possibilities, it seems to me that it&#8217;s more likely that it happened.</p><p>Again, this does not mean that the Trojan War took place exactly as Homer describes it in the <em>Iliad</em>. To begin with, Homer was a poet, not a historian, so his goals in writing were more aligned with aesthetic considerations and pleasing his audience than with faithfully representing the past. Characters such as Achilles, Hector, or Odysseus himself lack the evidence needed to be considered historical figures. They may well have been representations of real warriors who distinguished themselves in the conflicts between the <em>Ahhiyawa</em> and the Hittites, but the passage of centuries of oral tradition up to Homer&#8217;s time must have transformed them to the point of making them unrecognizable. Homer knew that if he wanted to narrate a great war that the Greeks believed their ancestors had fought, he would need characters who were up to the task and the epic narrative he sought to create.</p><p>Now, another fundamental issue when considering the historicity of events such as those recounted in the <em>Iliad</em> and the <em>Odyssey</em> is to bear in mind that this was a story&#8212;a past&#8212;which, regardless of whether it was real or not, the Greeks and the Hellenistic world in general regarded as true and a fundamental part of their identity. For the Greeks, the Trojan War took place and was a foundational element in the formation of their worldview.</p><p>This brings me to the question that prompted me to write this entire article. Given these considerations&#8212;that Troy existed and that the evidence suggests a plausible context for the Trojan War, and more importantly, that for the ancient Greeks this constituted their own past, which they considered real&#8212;is it legitimate to depict these stories and cultural elements with complete creative freedom, to the point of creating distortions that ultimately use History merely as a pretext for telling a story?</p><p>I think that&#8217;s a valid point; let&#8217;s start there. But that doesn&#8217;t mean there shouldn&#8217;t be any reaction. As historians, we must pay close attention to everything Hollywood produces and be particularly critical of its work. We live in an era where these Hollywood productions are one of the main ways people interact with the past, and the representations they generate permeate and reshape collective memory, where Hollywood&#8217;s script and agenda dictate the parameters. That is why I believe&#8212;as unpleasant as it may seem to some&#8212;that historians must fulfill a new role as intermediaries between what Hollywood produces and what the public consumes.</p><p>I can&#8217;t help but wonder why Nolan decided that, in addition to dressing his Greeks in fictional armor that looks like poor imitations of Viking movies and TV shows, he also had them wear pants&#8212;the element that perhaps most visually and culturally distances them from what the Greeks of the late Bronze Age were really like. Many people will be left with that image. Many others will ignore it, believing that everything related to Troy is a myth that can be manipulated for commercial purposes, but the truth is that these distortions of the past play a fundamental role in preserving our collective memory.</p><p>Netflix has just announced a new series based on Hannibal, starring none other than Denzel Washington, but I don&#8217;t intend to waste my time&#8212;or yours&#8212;criticizing that nonsense right now. There will be plenty of time for that later.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you haven&#8217;t subscribed yet and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You&#8217;ll be supporting my work and encouraging me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[La Guerra de Troya]]></title><description><![CDATA[Cuando el mito y la verdad se confuden.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-guerra-de-troya</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-guerra-de-troya</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 17 Mar 2026 20:55:47 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>La historia de la Guerra de Troya, la Il&#237;ada, es la narrativa &#233;pica fundacional de la cultura griega y por extensi&#243;n, de la occidental. La gran mayor&#237;a de nosotros, de una u otra forma, hemos interactuado con esta historia a lo largo de nuestras vidas. Las &#233;picas batallas entre h&#233;roes legendarios frente a las murallas de Troya, la ambici&#243;n de Aquiles, la honra de H&#233;ctor, la perspectiva de Odiseo o el caballo de madera que dio fin al largo asedio, sentaron las bases para un imaginario colectivo y un sistema de valores que terminaron por configurar la memoria hist&#243;rica de nuestros antepasados. Pero &#191;realmente sucedi&#243; la Guerra de Troya?</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg" width="1280" height="985" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yyqA!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fccdd73bb-9994-4800-9080-432c595d0c2a_1280x985.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>La entrada del caballo de Troya</em> de Guivanni Domenico Tiepolo (1773).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>El 22 de diciembre del a&#241;o pasado se estren&#243; el trailer de la nueva pel&#237;cula del director Christopher Nolan, <em>La Odisea, </em>y dio mucho que hablar en el mundo de las redes sociales. Por una parte, est&#225;n los que, como yo, vieron sin comprender muy bien qu&#233; era lo que quizo mostrarnos Nolan en el trailer, para luego comenzar a asimilar que se trataba de una representaci&#243;n desconcertante &#8211;me cuesta encontrar una palabra adecuada que no sea demasiado dura&#8211; del mundo del mundo mic&#233;nico y el fin de la Edad del Bronce. Luego est&#225;n los que criticaron a quienes quedamos desconcertados bas&#225;ndose en la premisa de que la Guerra de Troya jam&#225;s existi&#243;, por lo que las representaciones que se hagan de esta deber&#237;an poder estar sometidas a total libertad creativa. Por supuesto, tambi&#233;n est&#225;n los que no le interesan este tipo de debates y ver&#225;n la pel&#237;cula y la disfrutar&#225;n o no en base a otros criterios, pero quiero centrarme en esta discusi&#243;n que lleva a la pregunta fundamental de si existi&#243; una Guerra de Troya que permita ser un criterio para juzgar si las representaciones sobre estas son correctas, adecuadas, desconcertantes, como quieran llamarlo. </p><p>&#191;Existi&#243; la ciudad de Troya, y en particular una guerra como la que describe Homero en su <em>Iliada</em>? Con las excavaciones iniciadas en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, se descubri&#243; en la actual Turqu&#237;a, cerca del estrecho de los Dardanelos, vestigios arqueol&#243;gicos de un importante asentamiento cuyo n&#250;cleo, en la actual colina de Hisarlik, fue identificado como la ciudad de Troya. Los propios griegos, desde los tiempos de Homero, ten&#237;an una idea de d&#243;nde se encontraba la ciudad, identific&#225;ndola con la Troya en que el rey persa Jerjes hizo sacrificios antes de su invasi&#243;n de Grecia del 480 a. C. (Her&#243;doto 7. 43). Las ruinas descubiertas en Hisarlik revelan varias capas de ocupamiento del lugar, por lo que la existencia de una ciudad que los griegos reconoc&#237;an como Troya es algo un poco absurdo de poner en discusi&#243;n. En la Antig&#252;edad hab&#237;a una ciudad en la costa noroccidental de Anatolia que el mundo helen&#237;stico reconoc&#237;a como Troya, la cual supuestamente hab&#237;a sido destruida en un pasado lejano por distintos pueblos griegos en una guerra, magistralmente narrada por Homero a finales del siglo VIII a. C.</p><p>En la actualidad, hay consenso entre los arque&#243;logos de que tanto el nivel VI como el VII de ocupaci&#243;n del sitio de Troya fueron destruidos en alg&#250;n momento de su historia para eventualmenter ser repoblados. Mientras que los restos de Troya VI datar&#237;an cerca del 1250 a. C., calzando con el per&#237;odo en que Homero sit&#250;a la Guerra de Troya, los arque&#243;logos no han podido determinar las causas de su destrucci&#243;n, ya que hay muy poca evidencia que permita soportar la idea de un enfrentamiento a gran escala en la &#233;poca. Por otra parte, en el caso de Troya VII s&#237; hay suficiente evidencia para determinar que la ciudad fue destruida por acci&#243;n humana, lo que calzar&#237;a con el contexto descrito por Homero en sus obras. El problema es que la destrucci&#243;n de Troya VII se habr&#237;a producido entre el 1100 y el 1000 a. C., ofrenciendo un rango de tiempo que se aleja demasiado de los hechos narrados por Homero.</p><p>Esto podr&#237;a solucionarse considerando la posibilidad de que haya sido el propio Homero el que se equivoc&#243; al situar en el tiempo los hechos que narraba &#8211;recordemos que eran hechos que habr&#237;an ocurr&#237;do por lo menos unos trescientos a&#241;os antes de ser escritos&#8211;, pero ese no es el punto. <strong>El hecho es que la ciudad que los griegos identificaban como Troya en la Antig&#252;edad fue destruida dos veces en el estertor de la Edad del Bronce.</strong> Dudar de la existencia de Troya con estos antecedentes es insostenible. </p><p>Ahora, establecer la existencia de la ciudad de Troya y la existencia de una Guerra de Troya como la narrada por Homero son cosas muy distintas. Ya vimos que la ciudad fue destruida al menos en dos ocasiones entre el 1250 y el 1000 a. C., una de ellas por acci&#243;n humana, por lo que hay fundamentos para creer que Homero se inspir&#243; en un conflicto que en realidad sucedi&#243;. Eso es todo lo que tenemos hasta ah&#237;, pero si vamos a buscar evidencia en los registros de otros reinos o grandes imperios de la &#233;poca como el hitita, encontramos cosas muy interesantes que valen la pena revisar.</p><p>En base a cartas y registros sobrevivientes del imperio hitita, el fil&#243;logo Forrer sugiri&#243; a mediados del siglo XX, que la Troya de Homero podr&#237;a haberse encontrado en la regi&#243;n llamada Wilusa o Taruisa por los hititas, de los que devendr&#237;an los nombres de Ili&#243;n y Troya. De ser as&#237;, entonces existir&#237;a m&#225;s evidencia que apoyar&#237;a la existencia de una Troya al menos similar a la de Homero en la forma de cartas entre los soberanos hititas y sus distintos vasallos. Existen tres de estas cartas preservadas en restos de tablillas de arcilla que datan entre los a&#241;os 1295 a. C. y 1209 a. C., que dan cuenta de una regi&#243;n llamada Wilusa, ubicada en los confines noroccidentales del imperio hitita, con una capital del mismo nombre, Wilusa. </p><p>De forma muy resumida, estas cartas relatan ciertos hechos que dan cuenta de un contexto en el que pudo haber sucedido una guerra como la de Troya: primero una invasi&#243;n llevada a cabo por un caudillo llamado Piyamadaru, quien ocup&#243; Wilusa y fue expulsado de la ciudad por fuerzas hititas, y el destronamiento del rey de Wilusa, Walmuu, algunas d&#233;cadas despu&#233;s. Una de las cartas en particular, va dirigida al rey de los <em>Ahhiyawa</em>, t&#233;rmino identificado por Forrer como la palabra hitita para <em>aqueos, </em>como com&#250;nmente se hace referencia en la <em>Il&#237;ada </em>a los griegos. En esta carta, el rey de los hititas discute el problema que conllevaba para ambos reinos que los <em>ahhiyawa </em>hubiesen acogido a Piyamandaru despu&#233;s de haber sido expulsado de Wilusa. </p><p>En resumen, podemos ver un conflicto pol&#237;tico &#8211;que no sabemos c&#243;mo se resolvi&#243;&#8211; entre los hititas y los <em>ahhiyawa, </em>los supuestos aqueos o griegos, que se dio a ra&#237;z del control de la ciudad de Wilusa en el siglo XIII a. C. Todo esto si aceptamos la premisa de Forrer, la cual sigue siendo ampliamente aceptada a d&#237;a de hoy en el mundo acad&#233;mico. </p><p>&#191;Qu&#233; podemos sacar de todo esto? Que el contexto reci&#233;n descrito hace factible la existencia de un conflicto armado entre los aqueos y el reino de Ili&#243;n (Wilusa para los hititas) a lo largo del siglo XIII a. C. Es dif&#237;cil dar respuestas rotundas ya que todav&#237;a hay muchos vac&#237;os que no permiten encajar todas las piezas, pero en mi opini&#243;n, con la evidencia existente no se puede negar la posibilidad de una Guerra de Troya. Si hablamos de posibilidades, me parece que es m&#225;s probable que haya sucedido. </p><p>Nuevamente, esto no quiere decir que la Guerra de Troya haya sucedido como Homero la narra en la <em>Il&#237;ada. </em>Para partir, Homero era un poeta, no un historiador, por lo que sus objetivos al registrar se alineaban m&#225;s con lo est&#233;tico y buscar agradar al p&#250;blico, que con representar el pasado con fidelidad. Personajes como Aquiles, H&#233;ctor o el propio Odiseo no tiene sustento para ser considerados como personajes hist&#243;ricos. Puede que, y probablemente hayan sido la representaci&#243;n de guerreros reales que destacaron en los conflictos entre los <em>ahhiyawa </em>y los hititas, pero el paso de siglos de tradici&#243;n oral hasta los tiempos de Homero debe haberlos transformado al punto de hacerlos irreconocibles. Homero sab&#237;a que si quer&#237;a narrar una gran guerra que los griegos cre&#237;an que hab&#237;an luchado sus antepasados, necesitar&#237;a personajes que estuviesen a la altura de las circunstancias y de la &#233;pica narrativa que buscaba crear.</p><p>Ahora, otra cuesti&#243;n fundamental a la hora de lidiar con la historicidad de hechos como los narrados en la <em>Il&#237;ada </em>y la <em>Odisea, </em>es tener en consideraci&#243;n que esta era una historia, un pasado, que independiente de si es real o no, los griegos y el mundo helen&#237;stico en general consideraban como verdadero y parte fundamental de su identidad. Para los griegos la Guerra de Troya sucedi&#243; y fue un elemento fundacional en la conformaci&#243;n de su cosmovisi&#243;n.</p><p>Esto me lleva a la pregunta que me motiv&#243; a escribir todo este art&#237;culo. Teniendo en cuenta este tipo de consideraciones; que Troya existi&#243; y que la evidencia sugiere un contexto plausible para una Guerra de Troya, y m&#225;s importante a&#250;n; que para los griegos de la Antig&#252;edad este constitu&#237;a un pasado propio que consideraban real &#191;es leg&#237;timo hacer representaciones de estas historias y elementos culturales tomando total libertad creativa, llegando a generar distorciones que al final solo usan la Historia como un pretexto para contar una historia? </p><p>Me parece que es leg&#237;timo, partamos con eso. Pero eso no quiere decir que no deba haber reacciones. Los historiadores debemos estar atentos a todo lo que produce Hollywood y ser particularmente cr&#237;ticos con su trabajo. Vivimos en una &#233;poca en que estas producciones de Hollywood son uno de los principales medios de las personas para interactuar con el pasado, y las representaciones que estos generan permean y le dan una nueva forma a la memoria colectiva, donde el gui&#243;n y la agenda de Hollywood dictan los par&#225;metros. Por eso me parece, por desagradable que pueda parecer a algunos, que los historiadores debemos cumplir un nuevo rol a la hora de ser intermediaros entre lo que producen Hollywood y lo que consume el p&#250;blico. </p><p>No dejo de preguntarme por qu&#233; Nolan decidi&#243; que adem&#225;s de usar armaduras ficticias que parecen malas copias de pel&#237;culas y series de vikingos para sus griegos, tambi&#233;n les hizo usar pantalones, el elemento que quiz&#225;s m&#225;s los aleja visual y culturalmente de lo que realmente fueron los griegos del fin de la Edad del Bronce. Mucha gente se quedar&#225; con esa imagen. Muchos otros lo ignorar&#225;n por creer que todo lo relacionado a Troya es un mito que puede ser manoseado en funci&#243;n de lo comercial, pero la verdad es que estas distorsiones del pasado juegan un rol fundamental a la hora de preservar nuestra memoria colectiva.</p><p>Ahora han anunciado la producci&#243;n de una serie de An&#237;bal en Netflix, protagonizada por ni m&#225;s ni menos que Denzel Washingtong, pero no pretendo desgastarme ni a m&#237; ni a ustedes criticando ese absurdo ahora. Ya habr&#225; ocasi&#243;n para eso.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[In the shadow of one of the greatest: Mago Barca]]></title><description><![CDATA[A military biography of the younger brother of one of the most powerful clans in ancient Carthage, the Barcids.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/in-the-shadow-of-a-one-of-the-greatest</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/in-the-shadow-of-a-one-of-the-greatest</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 26 Feb 2026 08:22:22 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>The youngest son of Hamilcar Barca, Hannibal&#8217;s younger brother. Throughout history, the figure of Mago Barca has been overshadowed by the achievements of his father and, above all, his brother, one of the greatest generals in history. Even his other brother, Hasdrubal, tends to receive more attention from both the general public and historians. But the reality is that Mago was one of the most active generals in the Punic Wars, and like his brothers, he made his life an eternal struggle against Rome.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/bajo-la-sombra-de-un-grande-magon?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Mago (white crest, center) fights on the front line alongside the Gallic troops and his brother Hannibal against the Roman legionaries at Cannae. Work by Peter Dennis.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Mago Barca (243-203 BC) is best known as the younger brother of Hannibal, the great Carthaginian general who shook the Roman Republic. In his brother&#8217;s shadow, and with a much more moderate level of success on the battlefield, Mago has received little attention from modern historians despite being one of the most active generals of the Second Punic War and a key player in some of Hannibal&#8217;s victories.</p><p>Virtually nothing is known about Mago&#8217;s childhood, except that he was born in Carthage around 243 BC, during the final years of the First Punic War. Cornelius Nepos does not mention him in the crossing of the Carthaginian army led by his father through the Pillars of Hercules (now the Strait of Gibraltar) to Hispania in 237 BC, unlike his brothers Hannibal and Hasdrubal, who are mentioned by the Roman historian.</p><p>This is a first reflection of the ignorance and lack of interest surrounding the figure of Mag&#243;n, who is mentioned for the first time by Roman sources in the context of his brother Hannibal&#8217;s invasion of Italy, when Livy, the main source for his life, mentions that Mago swam across the Ticinus River after Hannibal had defeated the Romans in the first battle of the Second Punic War, and then entered the region of Placentia with an advance cavalry force (21. 47. 4-7).</p><p>By this time, Mago was already twenty-five years old, but we can still infer some things about his past from this information. For example, the fact that Hannibal sent him on a reconnaissance mission to the region of Plasentia implied that he trusted him, which could be explained by the fact that Mago must have been in Hispania at least since the time of his father&#8217;s death, soon taking on tasks under Hannibal&#8217;s command, who must have taken charge of part of his education, at least in the military sphere. The fact that Mago had demonstrated his military experience and worth in Hannibal&#8217;s campaigns in Hispania and then in Gaul on his advance towards the Alps would explain the level of trust his brother placed in him during the early years of the war.</p><p>With An&#237;bal settled in northern Italy, the first major battle of the war took place in the winter of 218 BC near the Trebia River, where the Carthaginians won a crushing victory. Mago&#8217;s performance as a cavalry officer was crucial in executing an ambush against the rear of the Roman army, thus ensuring the Carthaginian victory.</p><p>The following year, he was also present at the Battle of Trasimene, although the nature of this battle, which was more of a large ambush that led to a pitched battle, did not allow Roman historians to record the positions and movements of Carthaginian officers in detail. What is known is that in the days leading up to the battle, when the Carthaginian army column was heading towards the trap that was Trasimene, Mago was in command of the rear guard of the column.</p><p>In 216 BC, his brother would complete his masterpiece in southern Italy, defeating the Romans in one of the most famous battles in history, at Cannae. On that occasion, Mago played a crucial role in the battle by executing, alongside Hannibal, a complex coordinated retreat maneuver of the Gallic troops that formed the center of his army, in the face of constant pressure from the Roman legions, to draw them into the increasingly extensive Carthaginian formation, which deployed its troops of African veterans on the flanks in an enveloping maneuver completed by Hannibal&#8217;s cavalry, which swept away the Roman cavalry and was able to close in on the rear of the Roman army.</p><p>The genius belongs to Hannibal, but let&#8217;s focus on Mago. To execute such an encircling maneuver with coordination and a very low margin for error, which involved closing in on an army that outnumbered his, Hannibal not only needed his genius, but also highly capable officers to lead and execute the maneuvers he envisioned. For the occasion, he relied on the skills of officers such as Hasdrubal (not to be confused with his brother) and Maharbal in the cavalry, and his own brother Mago to carry out the most risky maneuver, which involved both him and his brother fighting in the front line to maintain discipline and morale among the Gauls, who had to retreat counterintuitively as part of the plan. That day, fighting side by side on several occasions, constantly exposing themselves to enemy weapons, Hannibal and Mago managed to completely envelop the Roman legions and kill more than forty thousand soldiers, destroying the largest army Rome had ever raised in its history.</p><p>The success achieved at Cannae was the last that the brothers, who grew up in Hispania and shared adventures and campaigns for more than twenty years, enjoyed together. Roman sources do not delve deeply into the relationship between the two brothers, but given the trust Hannibal placed in him and the important positions Mago held in his army, I tend to think that it must have been close.</p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>After Cannae, Hannibal divided his forces and sent Mago with part of them to subdue the Samnite region and then the cities of Bruttium. Then, with much of southern Italy secured, Hannibal sent him on a crucial mission to Carthage to obtain reinforcements with which to deliver the final blow to Rome and end the war.</p><p>Mago appeared before the <em>Adirim</em>, the Carthaginian senate, that same year, and in heated debates with the factions that opposed Hannibal&#8217;s growing power, he managed to get approval to send reinforcements to Italy. Mago had envisioned an army of more than 12,000 men to reinforce his brother, but when Hasdrubal Barca, his other brother, was defeated in Hispania by the Scipios at Dertosa, the Carthaginian Senate decided to send this new army to Hispania to try to retain control of the region. In 215 BC, four thousand Numidian horsemen and forty elephants landed in southern Italy with provisions and money to reinforce Hannibal&#8217;s army (Livy, 23. 13. 7-8). <strong>These were the only reinforcements Hannibal received from Carthage in more than fifteen years in Italy, courtesy of his brother Mago.</strong></p><p>From there, a new phase began for Mago. He landed in Hispania at the head of reinforcements in 215 BC and immediately launched an aggressive campaign to control the region against the Romans led by the Scipio brothers, which lasted until 213 BC, when he was called back to Carthage to take command of a new army that was preparing to invade Italy and reinforce Hannibal. The Carthaginian Senate changed its plans with the rebellion of the locals of Corsica against Roman rule, so it entrusted Mago and his new army with capitalizing on the situation and conquering the island. Mago moved to the southeast coast of Hispania, probably stationing himself in New Carthage, and began preparations for the invasion of Corsica. The expedition, led by a trusted man of Mago named Hasdrubal the Bald, ended in complete disaster, with the total destruction of the Carthaginian forces on the island and the capture of Hasdrubal, who was sent to Rome as a prisoner.</p><p>With the failed operation in Sardinia, Mago once again turned his attention to the Scipio brothers in Hispania, who were already facing the Carthaginian armies led by Hasdrubal Barca&#8212;his brother&#8212;and Hasdrubal Gisco, another general who had recently arrived from Carthage. It was 211 BC.</p><p>The first of the Scipios to fall was the eldest, Publius Cornelius, father of the future Africanus, at the Battle of Castulum. On that occasion, Mago combined his forces with those of Hasdrubal Gisco to destroy Publius&#8217; army. A few days later, both generals joined forces with Hasdrubal Barca to defeat Cnaeus Cornelius and his forces at the Battle of Ilorca.</p><p>Despite these resounding victories, Mago and the other Carthaginian generals were unable to capitalize on the opportunity and definitively expel the Romans from Hispania. In 209 BC, a new Roman general, the son of Publius Cornelius, arrived in the region and quickly turned the situation in Rome&#8217;s favor. That same year, the Carthaginians lost their capital in Hispania, New Carthage, and the following year Hasdrubal Barca was defeated at the Battle of Baecula, prompting him to march to Italy to try to join Hannibal&#8217;s forces, something he would never achieve.</p><p>Mago spent the following year recruiting a new army in central Hispania, but his efforts were thwarted when Scipio sent one of his officers, Silanus, against him, who defeated him in battle. Mago fled to Gades, where he placed himself under the command of Hasdrubal Gisco. Under it, Mago once again distinguished himself as a cavalry officer, but the prospect of reversing the situation vanished completely with the Carthaginian defeat at the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC. Hasdrubal Gisco fled to Africa, leaving Mago alone to defend what remained of the Carthaginian domains, reduced to Gades and its surroundings.</p><p>The following year, Mago received orders from the Carthaginian Senate to go to Italy and join his brother Hannibal&#8217;s army. Before leaving Hispania, he attempted to recapture New Carthage with his fleet, but when he was repelled by the Roman garrison, he embarked his forces and set sail for Gades, where he was denied entry to the city. Mago&#8217;s response was brutal: after summoning the city authorities to a neutral location, he captured and crucified them. He then sailed to the Balearic Islands, where he spent several weeks recruiting men for his army.</p><p>That same year, in 205 BC, Mago landed in Cisalpine Gaul, in the northwest of the Italian peninsula. According to Livy, the Carthaginian general had a fleet of thirty ships and an army of fourteen thousand men (28. 46. 7-8). His first move was to storm and destroy the city of Genoa in an attempt to intimidate the region and bend it to Carthage&#8217;s will. The Romans closely followed Mago&#8217;s movements as he consolidated his position and recruited men from among the various Gallic tribes in the region, but they did not decide to advance on him until 203 BC.</p><p>The exact location of the battle is unknown, but it must have taken place near the coast of Liguria. In it, the Romans advanced with two armies under the command of the proconsul Marcus Cornelius and the praetor Publius Quintilius, deploying around forty thousand men against the approximately thirty thousand of Mago, who also had seven elephants sent from Carthage the previous year along with reinforcements and money to continue the war.</p><p>The battle was fierce, and the Carthaginian army began its retreat only when Mago, who was fighting on the front line alongside the Gallic infantry, was seriously wounded in one of his legs. According to Livy, the Carthaginians lost 5,000 men that day. The Romans lost 2,300 (30. 18. 1). Mago, badly wounded, regrouped his army in his camp and waited until nightfall to march south unseen towards the coast, where he received a delegation from the Carthaginian Senate ordering him to return to Africa to face the invasion of the Roman forces led by Scipio. In southern Italy, his brother Hannibal received the same order. After more than fifteen years, the Romans finally succeeded in liberating Italy from the Carthaginian forces. Now the only theater of war was Africa, the heart of the Carthaginian domains.</p><p>Unfortunately for Carthage, Mago never made it to Africa. He died at sea, when his fleet was sailing off the coast of Sardinia. The wound in one of his thighs proved too much for the battle-hardened general, and deprived Carthage of its only other option besides his brother Hannibal. It was a constant in the lives of the Barcids, including father and sons, to constantly expose themselves on the front lines of battle, both to direct complex maneuvers and to lead by example, something deeply related to the charisma of generals like them. Mago was no exception in this regard, proving himself not only a brave and capable officer, but also multifunctional, appearing in several battles leading infantry and cavalry charges that contributed greatly to Carthage&#8217;s successes in the early years of the war. In addition to being an excellent officer, Mago was the image of a complete warrior.</p><p>Without a doubt, his skills as a commander shone much brighter as an officer than as a general in command of his own armies, even though he was crucial in crushing the Scipio brothers in Hispania in 211 BC. Furthermore, he was as an officer, whether in the cavalry or infantry, that had the greatest impact on the war, as I mentioned at the beginning, being crucial to Hannibal&#8217;s early victories, which relied heavily on his brother&#8217;s ability to lead groups of men in various tasks requiring complex maneuvering or execution, such as ambushes or encirclements. While they were together, Mago always made things easier for Hannibal.</p><p>It must have been a painful disappointment for the great Carthaginian general to learn upon landing in Africa, south of Carthage in Hadrumetum, that his brother Mago, whom he had expected to meet there, had died at sea. The last time they had seen each other was in 216 BC, thirteen years earlier, when Carthage was on the verge of defeating Rome and winning the war. Now things were different. He would have to face the Roman invasion alone, without his brother&#8217;s help.</p><p>The defeat of Carthage at Zama in 202 BC marked the end of a war that had lasted more than seventeen years. While Hannibal&#8217;s reputation grew over time, becoming idolized throughout the Roman world, Mago&#8217;s figure faded into the background of his brother&#8217;s achievements, becoming a mere footnote in his life. But Mago was much more than that. He may not have had what it took to become one of the great generals of antiquity, but he certainly stood out as a capable and versatile officer, one of the most active in the Second Punic War, who participated in some of the most important battles in history, both in victory and defeat. Such was the life of the Barcid Mago.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you are not subscribed and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You will be supporting my work and motivating me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Bajo la sombra de un grande: Magón Barca]]></title><description><![CDATA[Una biograf&#237;a militar del hermano menor de uno de los clanes m&#225;s poderosos de la antigua Cartago, los B&#225;rcidas.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/bajo-la-sombra-de-un-grande-magon</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/bajo-la-sombra-de-un-grande-magon</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 26 Feb 2026 08:20:24 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>El hijo menor de Am&#237;lcar Barca, el hermano menor de An&#237;bal. A lo largo de la historia la figura de Mag&#243;n Barca ha sido opacada por los logros de su padre y sobre todo de su hermano, uno de los m&#225;s grandes generales de la historia. Incluso su otro hermano, Asdr&#250;bal, suele tener m&#225;s atenci&#243;n tanto del p&#250;blico general como de la historiograf&#237;a. Pero la realidad es que Mag&#243;n fue uno de los generales m&#225;s activos de las Guerras P&#250;nicas, y al igual que sus hermanos, hizo de su vida una eterna lucha contra Roma.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg" width="1880" height="1434" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1434,&quot;width&quot;:1880,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:876945,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/188977220?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F34fbdb9c-7b73-40a2-a371-f72c598fdf4b_1880x2521.heic&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!mjRa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcf056d52-9414-453e-a4c9-8e7692e863f7_1880x1434.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Mag&#243;n (cimera blanca, en el centro) lucha en primera l&#237;nea junto a las tropas galas y su hermano An&#237;bal (arriba) contra los legionarios romanos en Cannae. Obra de Peter Dennis.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Mag&#243;n Barca (243-203 a. C.) es conocido ante todo por ser el hermano menor de An&#237;bal, el gran general cartagin&#233;s que hizo temblar a la rep&#250;blica romana. A la sombra de su hermano, y con un nivel de &#233;xito bastante m&#225;s moderado en el campo de batalla, Mag&#243;n ha recibido poco inter&#233;s de parte la historiograf&#237;a moderna a pesar de que fue uno de los generales m&#225;s activos de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, siendo un actor clave en algunas de las victorias de An&#237;bal.</p><p>No se conoce pr&#225;cticamente nada de la infancia de Mag&#243;n, salvo que habr&#237;a nacido en Cartago alrededor del 243 a. C., durante los &#250;ltimos a&#241;os de la Primera Guerra P&#250;nica. Cornelio Nepote no lo menciona en el cruce del ej&#233;rcito cartagin&#233;s liderado por su padre a trav&#233;s de las Columnas de H&#233;rcules (actual Estrecho de Gibraltar) hacia Hispania en el 237 a. C., a diferencia de sus hermanos An&#237;bal y Asdr&#250;bal, que s&#237; son mencionados por el historiador romano. </p><p>Este es un primer reflejo de la ignorancia y o falta de inter&#233;s en torno a la figura de Mag&#243;n, la cual es mencionada por primera vez por fuentes romanas en el contexto de la invasi&#243;n de Italia de su hermano An&#237;bal, cuando Livio, la principal fuente para su vida, menciona que Mag&#243;n cruz&#243; el r&#237;o Tesino a nado luego de que An&#237;bal hubiera derrotado a los romanos en la primera batalla de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, para luego internarse con una avanzada de caballer&#237;a en la regi&#243;n de Plascencia (21. 47. 4-7). </p><p>Para este entonces Mag&#243;n ya ten&#237;a veinticinco a&#241;os, pero de todas formas se pueden inferir algunas cosas de su pasado a partir de este dato. Por ejemplo, que An&#237;bal lo haya enviado con una avanzada de reconocimiento a la regi&#243;n de Plascencia implicaba que confiaba en &#233;l, lo cual se podr&#237;a explicar por el hecho de que Mag&#243;n debi&#243; haberse encontrado en Hispania al menos desde la &#233;poca de la muerte de su padre, pronto asumiendo tareas bajo el mando de An&#237;bal, quien tiene que haberse hecho cargo de parte de su educaci&#243;n, al menos en el &#225;mbito militar. Que Mag&#243;n haya demostrado su experiencia y val&#237;a militar en las campa&#241;as de An&#237;bal en Hispania y luego en la Galia en su avance hacia los Alpes, explicar&#237;a el nivel de confianza que deposit&#243; su hermano en &#233;l durante los primeros a&#241;os de guerra.</p><p>As&#237; las cosas, y con An&#237;bal instalado en el norte de Italia, se dio la primera gran batalla de la guerra en invierno del 218 a. C. junto al r&#237;o Trebia, donde los cartagineses obtuvieron una aplastante victoria, y donde la actuaci&#243;n de Mag&#243;n como oficial de caballer&#237;a fue crucial al ejecutar una emboscada contra la retaguardia del ej&#233;rcito romano, asegurando as&#237; la victoria cartaginesa.</p><p>Al a&#241;o siguiente, tambi&#233;n estuvo presente en la batalla de Trasimeno, aunque la naturaleza de esta, m&#225;s una gran emboscada que deriv&#243; en una batalla campal, no permiti&#243; a los historiadores romanos registrar las posiciones y movimientos de los oficiales cartagineses con detalle. S&#237; se sabe que los d&#237;as previos a la batalla, cuando la columna del ej&#233;rcito cartagines se dirig&#237;a al encerradero que era Trasimeno, Mag&#243;n estaba al mando de la retaguardia de la columna.</p><p>En el 216 a. C., su hermano concretar&#237;a su obra maestra en el sur de Italia, al derrotar a los romanos en una de las batallas m&#225;s famosas de toda la historia, en Cannae. En aquella ocasi&#243;n, Mag&#243;n jug&#243; un papel crucial en la batalla al ejecutar junto a An&#237;bal una compleja maniobra de retirada coordinada de las tropas galas que conformaban el centro de su ej&#233;rcito, ante el constante empuje de las legiones romanas, para atraerlas a la cada vez m&#225;s extensa formaci&#243;n cartaginesa, que despleg&#243; a sus tropas de veteranos africanos en los costados en una maniobra de envolvimiento completada por la caballer&#237;a de An&#237;bal, que barri&#243; a la romana y pudo cerrarse sobre la retaguardia del ej&#233;rcito romano. </p><p>La genialidad es de An&#237;bal, pero centr&#233;monos en Mag&#243;n. Para ejecutar con coordinaci&#243;n y un muy bajo margen de error una maniobra envolvente como esa, que consideraba cerrarse sobre un ej&#233;rcito que lo doblegaba en n&#250;mero, An&#237;bal no solo necesitaba su genio, sino que tambi&#233;n oficiales altamente capaces de liderar y ejecutar las maniobras que envision&#243;. Para la ocasi&#243;n cont&#243; con la habilidad de oficiales como Asdr&#250;bal (no confundir con su hermano) o Maharbal en la caballer&#237;a, y su propio hermano Mag&#243;n para llevar a cabo la maniobra m&#225;s arriesgada, que implicaba que tanto &#233;l como su hermano luchasen en primera fila para mantener la disciplina y la moral entre unos galos que deb&#237;an retroceder contraintuitivamente como parte del plan. Aquel d&#237;a, luchando codo a codo en alguans ocasiones, exponi&#233;ndose constantemente a las armas enemigas, An&#237;bal y Mag&#243;n lograron envolver por completo a las legiones romanas y acabar con m&#225;s de cuarenta mil soldados, destruyendo el ej&#233;rcito m&#225;s grande que Roma hab&#237;a levantado en su historia.</p><p>El &#233;xito logrado en Cannae fue el &#250;ltimo que disfrutaron juntos los hermanos que crecieron en Hispania y que compartieron aventuras y campa&#241;as por m&#225;s de veinte a&#241;os. Las fuentes romanas no profundizan en la relaci&#243;n entre ambos hermanos, pero por la confianza que le daba An&#237;bal y los cargos de importancia que ocupaba Mag&#243;n en su ej&#233;rcito, tiendo a pensar que esta debe haber sido cercana. </p><div><hr></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><div><hr></div><p>Luego de Cannae, An&#237;bal dividi&#243; sus fuerzas y envi&#243; a Mag&#243;n con una parte de estas a someter la regi&#243;n del Samnio y luego las ciudades del Brucio. Entonces, con gran parte del sur de Italia asegurado, An&#237;bal lo envi&#243; en una crucial misi&#243;n a Cartago para conseguir refuerzos con los que dar el golpe final a Roma y acabar la guerra.</p><p>Mag&#243;n se present&#243; ante la <em>Adirim, </em>el senado cartagin&#233;s, ese mismo a&#241;o, y en acalorados debates con las facciones que se opon&#237;an al creciente poder de An&#237;bal, logr&#243; aprobar el env&#237;o de refuerzos a Italia. Mag&#243;n hab&#237;a envisionado un ej&#233;rcito de m&#225;s de doce mil hombres para reforzar a su hermano, pero cuando Asdr&#250;bal Barca &#8211;su otro hermano&#8211; fue derrotado en Hispania por los Escipiones en Dertosa, el senado cartagin&#233;s decidi&#243; enviar este nuevo ej&#233;rcito a Hispania para tratar de retener el control de la regi&#243;n. En el 215 a. C. desembarcaron en el sur de Italia cuatro mil jinetes n&#250;midas y cuarenta elefantes con provisiones y dinero para reforzar el ej&#233;rcito de An&#237;bal (Livio, 23. 13. 7-8). <strong>Estos fueron los &#250;nicos refuerzos que recibi&#243; An&#237;bal desde Cartago en m&#225;s de quince a&#241;os en Italia, cortes&#237;a de su hermano Mag&#243;n.</strong></p><p>A partir de ah&#237; comienza una nueva etapa para Mag&#243;n. Desembarc&#243; en Hispania al mando de las tropas de refuerzo en el 215 a. C. y de inmediato se sumi&#243; en una agresiva campa&#241;a por el control de la regi&#243;n contra los romanos comandados por los hermanos Escipiones que perdur&#243; hasta el 213 a. C., cuando fue llamado de regreso a Cartago para ponerse al mando de un nuevo ej&#233;rcito que se estaba preparando para invadir Italia y reforzar a An&#237;bal. El senado cartagin&#233;s cambi&#243; de planes con la rebeli&#243;n de los locales de C&#243;rcega ante el dominio romano, por lo que encomend&#243; a Mag&#243;n y su nuevo ej&#233;rcito capitalizar la situaci&#243;n y conquistar la isla. Mag&#243;n se movi&#243; a la costa sureste de Hispania, probablemente estacion&#225;ndose en Nueva Cartago, y comenz&#243; los preparativos para la invasi&#243;n de C&#243;rcega. La expedici&#243;n, al mando de un hombre de confianza de Mag&#243;n llamado Asdr&#250;bal el Calvo, termin&#243; en un completo desastre, con la destrucci&#243;n total de las fuerzas cartaginesas en la isla y la captura de este Asdr&#250;bal, que fue enviado a Roma como prisionero.</p><p>Con la operaci&#243;n fallida en Cerde&#241;a, Mag&#243;n se volc&#243; nuevamente contra los hermanos Escipiones en Hispania, quienes ya se estaban enfrentando a los ej&#233;rcitos cartagineses dirigidos por Asdr&#250;bal Barca &#8211;su hermano&#8211; y Asdr&#250;bal Gisc&#243;n, otro general recientemente llegado desde Cartago. Era el 211 a. C.</p><p>El primero de los Escipiones en caer fue el mayor, Publio Cornelio, padre del futuro Africanus, en la batalla de C&#225;stulo. En esa ocasi&#243;n, Mag&#243;n combin&#243; sus fuerzas con las del general Asdr&#250;bal Gisc&#243;n para destruir al ej&#233;rcito de Publio. Unos d&#237;as m&#225;s tarde, ambos generales unieron sus fuerzas a las de Asdr&#250;bal Barca para acabar con Cneo Cornelio y sus fuerzas en la batalla de Ilorca.</p><p>A pesar de estas contundentes victorias, Mag&#243;n y los otros generales cartagineses no fueron capaces de capitalizar la oportunidad y expulsar definitivamente a los romanos de Hispania. En el 209 a. C. lleg&#243; a la regi&#243;n un nuevo general romano, el hijo de Publio Cornelio, quien volc&#243; la situaci&#243;n r&#225;pidamente en favor de Roma. Ese mismo a&#241;o, los cartagineses perdieron su capital en Hispania, Nueva Cartago, y al a&#241;o siguiente Asdr&#250;bal Barca fue derrotado en la batalla de Baecula, lo que lo llev&#243; a marchar a Italia para tratar de unirse a las fuerzas de An&#237;bal, algo que jam&#225;s lograr&#237;a.</p><p>Mag&#243;n se pas&#243; el siguiente a&#241;o reclutando un nuevo ej&#233;rcito en el centro de Hispania, pero sus esfuerzos fueron frustrados cuando Escipi&#243;n envi&#243; a uno de sus oficiales contra &#233;l, Silano, quien lo derrot&#243; en una batalla. Mag&#243;n escap&#243; hacia Gades, donde se supedit&#243; a las fuerzas de Asdr&#250;bal Gisc&#243;n. Bajo su mando, Mag&#243;n volvi&#243; a destacarse como oficial de caballer&#237;a, pero la perspectiva de revertir la situaci&#243;n se esfum&#243; por completo con la derrota cartaginesa en la batalla de Ilipa en el 206 a. C. Asdr&#250;bal Gisc&#243;n huy&#243; a &#193;frica y dej&#243; solo a Mag&#243;n para defender lo que quedaba de los dominios cartagineses, reducidos a Gades y sus alrededores.</p><p>Al a&#241;o siguiente, Mag&#243;n recibi&#243; la orden del senado cartagin&#233;s de dirigirse a Italia y unirse al ej&#233;rcito de su hermano An&#237;bal. Antes de abandonar Hispania hizo un intento de recuperar Nueva Cartago con su flota, pero al ser rechazado por la guarnici&#243;n romana embarc&#243; sus fuerzas y puso rumbo de regreso a Gades, donde se le neg&#243; el ingreso a la ciudad. La respuesta de Mag&#243;n fue brutal, y luego de convocar a las autoridades de la ciudad en un punto neutral, las captur&#243; y crucific&#243;. Entonces naveg&#243; a las Islas Baleares, donde pas&#243; algunas semanas reclutando hombres para su ej&#233;rcito.</p><p>Ese mismo a&#241;o, en el 205 a. C., Mag&#243;n desembarc&#243; en la Galia Cisalpina, en el noroeste de la pen&#237;nsula it&#225;lica. Seg&#250;n Livio, el general cartagin&#233;s contaba con una flota de treinta buques y un ej&#233;rcito de catorce mil hombres (28. 46. 7-8). Su primer movimiento fue tomar por asalto y destruir la ciudad de G&#233;nova en un intento por intimidar la regi&#243;n y doblegarla a la voluntad de Cartago. Los romanos siguieron de cerca los movimientos de Mag&#243;n mientras consolidaba su posici&#243;n y reclutaba hombres entre las distintas tribus galas de la regi&#243;n, pero no se decidieron a avanzar sobre &#233;l hasta el 203 a. C.</p><p>Se desconoce el lugar exacto en que tuvo la batalla, pero debe haberse producido cerca de la costa de Liguria. En esta, los romanos avanzaron con dos ej&#233;rcitos al mando del proc&#243;nsul Marco Cornelio y el pretor Publio Quintilio, desplegando alrededor de cuarenta mil hombres contra los cerca de treinta mil de Mag&#243;n, quien adem&#225;s contaba con siete elefantes enviados desde Cartago el a&#241;o anterior junto a refuerzos y dinero para proseguir la guerra.</p><p>La batalla fue encarnizada, y el ej&#233;rcito cartagin&#233;s inici&#243; la retirada solo cuando Mag&#243;n, que luchaba en primera l&#237;nea junto a la infanter&#237;a gala, fue gravemente herido en una de sus piernas. Seg&#250;n Livio, los cartagineses perdieron cinco mil hombres ese d&#237;a. Los romanos, dos mil trescientos (30. 18. 1). Mag&#243;n, malherido, reagrup&#243; a su ej&#233;rcito en su campamento y esper&#243; a que fuese de noche para marchar hacia el sur sin ser visto hacia la costa, donde recibi&#243; una comitiva del senado cartagin&#233;s que le orden&#243; regresar a &#193;frica para enfrentar la invasi&#243;n de las fuerzas romanas lideradas por Escipi&#243;n. En el sur de Italia, su hermano An&#237;bal recib&#237;a la misma orden. Despu&#233;s de m&#225;s de quince a&#241;os, los romanos por fin lograban liberar Italia de las fuerzas cartaginesas. Ahora el &#250;nico escenario de la guerra era &#193;frica, el coraz&#243;n de los dominios cartagineses. </p><p>Lamentablemente para Cartago, Mag&#243;n nunca lleg&#243; a &#193;frica. Muri&#243; en altamar, cuando su flota navegaba a la altura de la isla de Cerde&#241;a. La herida en uno de sus muslos pudo con el aguerrido general, y priv&#243; a Cartago de su &#250;nica otra opci&#243;n adem&#225;s de su hermano An&#237;bal. Fue una constante en la vida de los B&#225;rcidas, incluido padre e hijos, el exponerse constantemente en la primera l&#237;nea de batalla, tanto para dirigir maniobras complejas, como para liderar con el ejemplo, algo profundamente relacionado al carisma de generales como los ellos. Mag&#243;n no se qued&#243; atr&#225;s en esto, y prov&#243;, adem&#225;s de ser un oficial valiente y capaz, multifuncional al aparecer en varias batallas dirigiendo cargas de infanter&#237;a y caballer&#237;a que contribuyeron enormemente a los &#233;xitos de Cartago en los primeros a&#241;os de guerra. Adem&#225;s de un excelente oficial, Mag&#243;n era la imagen de un guerrero completo.</p><p>Sin duda sus habilidades como comandante brillaron mucho m&#225;s como oficial que como general al mando de ej&#233;rcitos propios, aun cuando fue crucial para aplastar a los hermanos Escipiones en Hispania en el 211 a. C. Adem&#225;s, es como oficial, ya sea de caballer&#237;a o infanter&#237;a, donde tuvo m&#225;s impacto en la guerra, al ser, como ya mencion&#233; en un principio, crucial para las victorias iniciales de An&#237;bal, que se apoyaron en gran medida en las capacidades de su hermano para liderar grupos de hombres en diversas tareas de compleja maniobrabilidad o ejecuci&#243;n como emboscadas o envolvimientos. Mientras estuvieron juntos, Mag&#243;n siempre le hizo las cosas m&#225;s f&#225;ciles a An&#237;bal. </p><p>Debe haber sido una dolorosa decepci&#243;n para el gran general cartagin&#233;s enterarse al desembarcar en &#193;frica, al sur de Cartago en Hadrumeto, que su hermano Mag&#243;n, con quien ten&#237;a pronosticado encontrarse ah&#237;, hab&#237;a muerto en altamar. La &#250;ltima vez que se vieron fue en el 216 a. C., trece a&#241;os antes, cuando Cartago estaba al borde de doblegar a Roma y ganar la guerra. Ahora las cosas eran distintas. Tendr&#237;a que hacer frente a la invasi&#243;n romana por s&#237; solo, sin la ayuda de su hermano. </p><p>La derrota para Cartago en Zama en el 202 a. C. supuso el fin de una guerra de m&#225;s de diecisiete a&#241;os. Mientras que con el paso del tiempo la figura de An&#237;bal fue creciendo, llegando a ser idolatrada dentro del mundo romano, la figura de Mag&#243;n fue difumin&#225;ndose en los logros de su hermano, transform&#225;ndose en una an&#233;cdota de su vida. Pero Mag&#243;n fue mucho m&#225;s que eso. Quiz&#225;s no tuvo todo lo necesario para convertirse en uno de los grandes generales de la Antig&#252;edad, pero sin duda destac&#243; como un oficial capaz y versatil, de los m&#225;s activos de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica, y que particip&#243; en algunas de las batallas m&#225;s importantes de la historia, tanto en la victoria como en la derrota. As&#237; fue la vida de Mag&#243;n Barca.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The founding of Rome]]></title><description><![CDATA[Tradition holds that on April 21, 753 BC, the city of Rome was founded east of the Tiber River.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-founding-of-rome</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-founding-of-rome</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 29 Jan 2026 07:48:16 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Rome was not built in a day. The brothers Romulus and Remus, grandsons of the deposed king of Alba Longa, Numitor, and sons of the god Mars and the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia, were part of a long process that would culminate in the founding of Rome in 753 BC. A cosmopolitan, multicultural, and multiethnic city, open to anyone who wanted to seek success and wealth under the laws of its growing society. A city, some would say, in constant formation.</em></p><h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/la-fundacion-de-roma?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg" width="1201" height="860" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>The Intervention of the Sabine Women</em>, by Jacques-Louis David (1799). This scene depicts a crucial moment in the history of the formation of the Roman people, of which the Sabine women were an integral part.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>The archaic history of Rome is a complex subject to study due to the difficulties presented by literary sources, whose content is difficult to differentiate when it comes to myth and reality. Undoubtedly, there is a past of Rome, a part of the archaic history of Rome, which modern historiography classifies as mythical rather than historical. The famous brothers Romulus and Remus fall into this category. Under this logic, Romulus, the first king of Rome, would be a fictional figure.</p><p>Even so, the Romans considered Romulus to be their first king. There is a big difference between what may have actually happened and what the Romans believed that happened. No matter how hard modern archaeologists and historians strive to find a more real and concrete past than the one presented in literary sources, the past that the Romans believed in will not cease to exist or become less important to study. For the Romans, Romulus was the founder and first king of their city, and before him, there were other figures, mostly mythical to modern historiography, who were part of this long process that led to the founding of the historic city between those seven hills on the banks of the Tiber.</p><p>This past in which the Romans believed has some very interesting features for the time, which help to explain in part why Rome became what it was. Livy, writing in the first century BC, draws on much of the Roman historiographical tradition in presenting the account of the city&#8217;s founding.</p><p>It all began with Aeneas, the hero of the Trojan War who, after the destruction of his city and a long journey, settled in central Italy with a group of Trojan survivors. There, Aeneas had to reach an agreement with the locals ruled by King Latinus, who offered him his daughter in marriage to seal the alliance and union between the two peoples. Eventually, Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, and its inhabitants became known as the Latin people. The Romans deeply believed that they were descendants of those Trojans who mixed with the local population.</p><p>After the death of Aeneas, his son Ascanius decided to leave Lavinium, ruled by his mother, and found a new city which he called Alba Longa. According to Livy (1. 3. 4), this event took place thirty years after the founding of Lavinium. From then on, a dynasty of sixteen kings developed until the time when King Numitor was dethroned by his brother Amulius. Rhea Silvia, Numitor&#8217;s daughter and heir to the throne, was forced to become a priestess so that she could not have children, according to the tradition of her people. Thus, Amulius&#8217; position as king of Alba Longa was secured.</p><p>What follows is probably the most legendary event in the entire process of the founding of Rome. According to legend, the god Mars impregnated Rhea Silvia, who gave birth to Romulus and Remus. Livy, as a good historian, dismisses this and points out that Rhea Silvia was actually raped by a stranger (1. 4. 2). Livy&#8217;s statement is very important as it defines a different, even opposite nature to that of the oral tradition that prevailed in his time; instead of being founded by the children of a god, Rome had been founded by the bastards of an unknown father, probably a nobleman from Alba Longa, but who in reality could have been any man. Thus, the origin of Rome was stripped of all divinity.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg" width="960" height="863" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:863,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:256485,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/186137481?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9216446c-4b9c-4740-a92e-25a6bbb3fbcd_960x996.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Xdhc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7dc7926b-2349-4338-ae06-23579713c4af_960x863.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>The Shepherd F&#225;stulo Bringing Romulus and Remus to His Wife</em>, by Nicolas Mignard (1654).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Amulius, king of Alba Longa, dealt with the matter of Rhea Silvia&#8217;s pregnancy ruthlessly. When the twins were born, Amulius ordered that they be killed by throwing them into the Tiber. Legend has it that the twins survived the river&#8217;s currents and ended up on one of its banks, where they were rescued by a she-wolf who raised them. Once again, Livy presents a more realistic version, in which the twins are saved by a shepherd named Faustulus, who raised them together with his wife (1. 4. 6-7). Whatever the case may be, the twins Romulus and Remus grew up to become the leaders of a band of outlaws who came into conflict with Amulius when they plundered the territory of Alba Longa.</p><p>This led Amulius to devise a plan to capture the twins. To do so, he enlisted the help of the Arcadian Greeks who lived on the Palatine Hill (one of the future seven hills of Rome), who summoned the entire population of the region to sacred games in honor of the god Inuus. Romulus and Remus attended with their followers and were ambushed there. Romulus managed to escape, but Remus was captured and sent to Alba Longa.</p><p>Faced with this situation, Faustulus decided to tell Romulus the truth about his origins, and Romulus decided to organize Remus&#8217; rescue by marching with his followers to Alba Longa. Upon arriving to the city, he managed to free his brother, and together they killed Amulius and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne. It was then that they made the decision to found a new city at the spot where they had been rescued from the banks of the Tiber. Thus began the planning for the rise of the future Rome.</p><p>While they were choosing the exact location for the city, a conflict broke out between the two brothers. Romulus wanted to build on the Palatine Hill and settled there with his followers, while Remus settled on the Aventine Hill with his followers. The brothers tried to resolve the matter by leaving it to divine interpretation, but when they could not agree on the results of the omens (Romulus claimed to have seen more vultures flying over the site, while Remus said he had seen them first), a battle broke out between the two sides in which Remus was killed. Thus, Romulus became the first king of Rome and established the city on the Palatine Hill. According to tradition, it was April 21, 753 BC, although of course, this date is a convention of the Roman world.</p><p>Beyond the dispute between the two brothers, the most interesting thing here is that Romulus chose the Palatine Hill, the same hill where the Arcadians led by Evander had founded a colony called Palatium in the 12th century BC, to establish his new city. This leads us to assume that this Arcadian population was expelled or absorbed by Rome. The second option seems the most plausible, as sources make no mention of any war between the fledgling Romans and the Arcadians of Palatium, who surely did not have the means to confront the power that Romulus had amassed. In turn, archaeological evidence shows that the Palatine Hill has been inhabited since at least the 11th century BC, mainly by huts and cabins, which could be linked to the Arcadians who occupied the area. Thus, we can see that <strong>the absorption of local populations by Rome was a constant feature of its early history</strong>, resulting in a multi-ethnic and multicultural community that was assimilated over time.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png" width="960" height="916" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:916,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:137960,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/186137481?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!f4cs!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45d389a9-eb64-4483-967a-c9df225d2828_960x916.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">The seven hills of Rome. Map obtained from Wikipedia.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Romulus&#8217; first act as king was to summon free men, outlaws, and slaves from all over Italy to populate the city (Livy, 1. 8. 6-7). In the long run, this posed a problem, as Rome&#8217;s population was unbalanced: there were too few women to perpetuate it with future generations. It is in this context that the abduction of the Sabine women took place, one of the most important events in the founding of Rome. Faced with a shortage of women in the city, Romulus devised a plan to kidnap women from various nearby towns, including the Sabines. He invited the local populations to celebrate a festival in honor of Neptune, and while they were in the midst of the celebration, gave the order to kidnap the virgin daughters of those in attendance.</p><p>In response to this affront, the peoples of the Cenini and the Cinesi immediately declared war on Rome and invaded its territory, but they were defeated and expelled by Romulus. Then he marched against other affected peoples, the Amtemnates and the Crustumini. Both peoples were defeated, with the Amtemnates being relocated to Rome with the benefit of citizenship, and the Crustumini having to receive a Roman colony and in turn send part of their population to Rome. With the absorption of these populations, Rome grew by leaps and bounds.</p><p>Finally, after several years, war broke out against the Sabines, who were most aggrieved by the abduction of their daughters. The war was planned by the Sabines, who managed to enter Rome when a Vestal Virgin, the daughter of a Sabine, opened one of the gates of the citadel for them. The Sabines took control of the city, and the Romans, led by Romulus, attempted to retake it but were ultimately repelled in a battle that only ended when the Sabine women, seeing their Roman husbands and Sabine fathers fighting to the death, decided to throw themselves into the midst of the battle to stop the slaughter. The courageous intervention of the Sabine women had the desired effect and moved the men of both peoples, who were related through them, to put aside their fighting and enter into negotiations. These culminated in an agreement in which the Romans and Sabines united as one people ruled by two kings: the Roman Romulus and the Sabine Titus Tatius.</p><p>It is only here, it seems to me, that we can speak of the end of the process&#8212;if we have to choose one&#8212;of the founding of Rome. It is with the union of the Romans and the Sabines into a single people that Rome finally consolidates itself as a city-state with all the elements necessary to sustain itself over time and, above all, to impose itself on neighboring cities, now at a disadvantage compared to such a populous city. Eventually, Titus Tatius died and Romulus returned to rule alone for a few years until his death in strange circumstances. He was succeeded by Numa Pompilius, of Sabine origin, who, according to Professor Cornell (<em>The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars</em>, 1995), actually may have been the first king of Rome.</p><p>This is the story, with some discrepancies on certain issues, that the Romans generally believed when they spoke or related to their past. It can be seen that the idea that Rome had emerged from a conglomerate of fugitives, mercenaries, slaves, and a few free men who had to kidnap women from other towns to consolidate their own was accepted. It is a rather peculiar history for a city that ended up dominating the known world, in which the epic nature of the story is intertwined with more secular, realistic, and even crude events and narratives. The image of the archaic Rome that Livy leaves us with is that of a refuge for warlords, mercenaries, fugitives, and slaves who wanted to start a new life. This is how Rome came into being.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you are not subscribed and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You will be supporting my work and motivating me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[La fundación de Roma]]></title><description><![CDATA[La tradici&#243;n sostiene que el 21 de abril del 753 a. C. fue fundada al este del r&#237;o T&#237;ber la ciudad de Roma.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-fundacion-de-roma</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-fundacion-de-roma</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 29 Jan 2026 07:46:52 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><em>Roma no se form&#243; en un solo d&#237;a. Los hermanos R&#243;mulo y Remo, nietos del depuesto rey de Alba Longa, Numitor, e hijos del dios Marte y la v&#237;rgen vestal Rea Silvia, fueron parte de un largo proceso que culminar&#237;a con la fundaci&#243;n de Roma en el 753 a. C. Una ciudad cosmopolita, multicultural y multi&#233;tnica, abierta a todo el que quisiera buscar el &#233;xito y la riqueza bajo las leyes de su creciente sociedad. Una ciudad, algunos dir&#237;an, en constante formaci&#243;n. </em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg" width="1201" height="860" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:860,&quot;width&quot;:1201,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:610598,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/185806398?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!aA5A!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2599338c-639f-4d49-b6d9-5594e1e98009_1201x860.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>La intervenci&#243;n de las mujeres Sabinas</em>, de Jaques-Louis David (1799). Esta escena representa un momento crucial en la historia de la conformaci&#243;n del pueblo romano, del que las mujeres sabinas eran una parte integral.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>La historia arcaica de Roma es un tema complejo de estudiar debido a las dificultades que presentan las fuentes literarias, cuyo contenido cuesta diferenciar cuando se trata de &#233;pica y realidad. Sin duda, hay un pasado de Roma, una parte de la historia arcaica de Roma, que la historiograf&#237;a moderna cataloga como m&#237;tico m&#225;s que hist&#243;rico. Los famosos hermanos R&#243;mulo y Remo caen en esa categor&#237;a. Bajo esta l&#243;gica, R&#243;mulo, el primer rey de Roma ser&#237;a una figura ficticia. </p><p>Aun as&#237;, los romanos consideraban a R&#243;mulo como su primer rey. Hay una gran diferencia entre lo que realmente puede haber sucedido, y lo que los romanos cre&#237;an que sucedi&#243;. Por m&#225;s que los arque&#243;logos e historiadores modernos nos esforcemos por encontrar un pasado m&#225;s real y concreto que el presentado en las fuentes literarias, el pasado en el que cre&#237;an los romanos no dejar&#225; de existir o ser menos importante de estudiar. Para los romanos, R&#243;mulo fue el fundador y primer rey de su ciudad, y antes de &#233;l, hubo otras figuras, en su mayor&#237;a m&#237;ticas para la historiograf&#237;a moderna, que fueron parte de este largo proceso que llev&#243; a la fundaci&#243;n de la hist&#243;rica ciudad entre esas siete colinas a orillas del T&#237;ber.</p><p>Este pasado en el que cre&#237;an los romanos tiene algunas particularidades muy interesantes para la &#233;poca, y que ayudan a explicar en parte por qu&#233; Roma lleg&#243; a ser lo que fue. Tito Livio, escribiendo en el siglo I a. C., recoge gran parte de la tradici&#243;n historiogr&#225;fica romana al presentar el relato de la fundaci&#243;n de la ciudad.</p><p>Todo parte con Eneas, el h&#233;roe de la guerra de Troya que tras la destrucci&#243;n de su ciudad y un largo peregrinaje, se estableci&#243; en el centro de Italia con un grupo de sobrevivientes troyanos. Ah&#237; Eneas debi&#243; llegar a un acuerdo con los locales gobernados por el rey Latino, quien le ofreci&#243; a su hija en matrimonio para concretar la alianza y uni&#243;n de ambos pueblos. Eventualmente, Eneas fund&#243; la ciudad de Lavinio, y sus habitantes pasar&#237;an a ser conocidos como el pueblo latino. Los romanos cre&#237;an profundamente que eran descendientes de esos troyanos que se mezclaron con la poblaci&#243;n local.</p><p>Tras la muerte de Eneas, su hijo Ascanio tom&#243; la decisi&#243;n de dejar Lavinio, gobernada por su madre, y fundar una nueva ciudad que llam&#243; Alba Longa. Seg&#250;n Livio (1. 3. 4), este evento se habr&#237;a dado treinta a&#241;os despu&#233;s de la fundaci&#243;n de Lavinio. A partir de ah&#237;, se desarrolla una dinast&#237;a de diecis&#233;is reyes hasta llegar a los tiempos en que el rey Numitor fue destronado por su hermano Amulio. Rea Silvia, la hija de Numitor y heredera del trono, fue obligada a convertirse en sacerdotisa para que no pudiera tener hijos, seg&#250;n la tradici&#243;n de su pueblo. As&#237;, la posici&#243;n de Amulio como rey de Alba Longa quedaba asegurada. </p><p>Lo que viene a continuaci&#243;n es probablemente el evento m&#225;s m&#237;tico de todo el proceso de la fundaci&#243;n de Roma. Seg&#250;n la leyenda, el dios Marte embaraz&#243; a Rea Silvia, dando luz a R&#243;mulo y Remo. Livio, como buen historiador, descarta esto y se&#241;ala que en realidad Rea Silvia fue violada por un desconocido (1. 4. 2). La afirmaci&#243;n de Livio es muy importante ya que define una naturaleza distinta, y hasta opuesta a la de la tradici&#243;n oral que predominaba en su &#233;poca; en vez de ser fundada por los hijos de un dios, Roma hab&#237;a sido fundada por unos bastardos de padre desconocido, probablemente un noble de Alba Longa, pero que en realidad podr&#237;a haber sido cualquier hombre. As&#237;, el origen de Roma era despojado de toda divinidad. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg" width="960" height="867" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:867,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:260151,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/jpeg&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/185806398?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F469fbde5-9010-4613-bfa6-3e36bcd54c67_960x996.jpeg&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Waxj!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F64dfb181-3fe1-46f7-b36b-abddf9208c0d_960x867.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption"><em>El pastor F&#225;stulo llevando a R&#243;mulo y Remo a su esposa</em>, de Nicolas Mignard (1654).</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>Amulio, el rey de Alba Longa, lidi&#243; con la cuesti&#243;n del embarazo de Rea Silvia siendo implacable. Cuando los gemelos nacieron, Amulio orden&#243; que fuesen asesinados siendo arrojados al T&#237;ber. La leyenda cuenta que los gemelos sobrevivieron a las corrientes del r&#237;o y terminaron en una de sus orillas, donde fueron rescatados por una loba que los cri&#243;. Nuevamente, Livio presenta una versi&#243;n m&#225;s realista, donde los gemelos son salvados por un pastor de nombre F&#225;stulo, quien los cri&#243; junto a su esposa (1. 4. 6-7). Como quiera que haya sido, los gemelos R&#243;mulo y Remo crecieron para terminar convirti&#233;ndose en los l&#237;deres de una banda de forajidos que entraron en conflicto con Amulio cuando saquearon el territorio de Alba Longa.</p><p>Esto llev&#243; a Amulio a idear un plan para apresar a los gemelos. Para esto cont&#243; con la ayuda de los griegos arcadios que viv&#237;an en la colina del Palatino (una de las futuras siete colinas de Roma), quienes convocaron a toda la poblaci&#243;n de la regi&#243;n a unos juegos sagrados en honor al dios Inuus. R&#243;mulo y Remo asistieron junto a sus seguidores y ah&#237; se les tendi&#243; una emboscada. R&#243;mulo logr&#243; escapar, pero Remo fue apresado y enviado a Alba Longa. </p><p>Ante esta situaci&#243;n, F&#225;stulo decidi&#243; contarle a R&#243;mulo la verdad sobre su origen, y este decidi&#243; organizar el rescate de Remo marchando junto a sus seguidores a Alba Longa. Al llegar a la ciudad, logr&#243; liberar a su hermano y juntos mataron a Amulio y reestablecieron en el trono a su abuelo Numitor. Fue entonces que tomaron la decisi&#243;n de fundar una nueva ciudad en el punto en que hab&#237;an sido rescatados de las orillas del T&#237;ber. As&#237; comenzaba a planificarse el levantamiento de la futura Roma.</p><p>Mientras que escog&#237;an el emplazamiento exacto de la ciudad, estall&#243; un conflicto entre ambos hermanos. R&#243;mulo quer&#237;a construir en la colina del Palatino y se instal&#243; ah&#237; con sus seguidores, mientras que Remo se instal&#243; en la colina del Aventino con los suyos. Los hermanos trataron de resolver el asunto dej&#225;ndolo a la interpretaci&#243;n divina, pero cuando estos no pudieron ponerse de acuerdo en cuanto a los resultados de los augurios (R&#243;mulo reclamaba haber visto m&#225;s buitres volando sobre el sitio mientras que Remo dec&#237;a haberlos visto primero), estall&#243; una lucha entre ambos bandos en la que Remo fue asesinado. As&#237;, R&#243;mulo se convirti&#243; en el primer rey de Roma y estableci&#243; la ciudad en la colina del Palatino. Seg&#250;n la tradici&#243;n, era el 21 de abril del a&#241;o 753 a. C., aunque por supuesto, esta fecha es una convenci&#243;n del mundo romano.</p><p>M&#225;s all&#225; de la disputa entre ambos hermanos, lo m&#225;s interesante aqu&#237; es que R&#243;mulo escogi&#243; el Palatino, la misma colina donde los arcadios liderados por Evandro hab&#237;an fundado una colonia llamada Palatium en el XII a. C., para establecer su nueva ciudad. Esto lleva a suponer que esta poblaci&#243;n de arcadios fue expulsada o absorvida por Roma. La segunda opci&#243;n parece la m&#225;s plausible ya que las fuentes no mencionan ninguna guerra entre los incipientes romanos y los arcadios de Palatium, que seguramente no ten&#237;an los medios para enfrentarse al poder que hab&#237;a amasado R&#243;mulo. A su vez, la evidencia arqueol&#243;gica da cuenta del poblamiento de la colina del Palatino al menos desde el siglo XI a. C., principalmente a trav&#233;s de chozas y caba&#241;as, las cuales podr&#237;an ser vinculadas a los arcadios que ocuparon la zona. As&#237;, podemos ver que <strong>la absorci&#243;n de poblaciones locales por parte de Roma fue una constante en sus primeros a&#241;os de historia</strong>, derivando en una comunidad multi&#233;tnica y multicultural que se fue asimilando con el tiempo.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png" width="960" height="916" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:916,&quot;width&quot;:960,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:150037,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/i/185806398?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ie_h!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F63c19e40-527b-45e8-830f-83376e8abb82_960x916.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg role="img" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><title></title><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Las siete colinas de Roma. Mapa obtenido de Wikipedia.</figcaption></figure></div><div><hr></div><p>La primera medida de R&#243;mulo como rey fue convocar a hombres libres, forajidos y esclavos venidos de toda Italia para que poblaran la ciudad (Livio, 1. 8. 6-7). A la larga, esto supuso un problema ya que la poblaci&#243;n de Roma estaba desbalanceada: hab&#237;a muy pocas mujeres para perpetuarla con futuras generaciones. Es en este contexto que se da el rapto de las mujeres sabinas, uno de los acontecimientos m&#225;s importantes en el proceso fundacional de Roma. Ante la falta de mujeres en la ciudad, R&#243;mulo concibi&#243; un plan para raptar mujeres de distintos pueblos cercanos, entre ellos el de los sabinos. Convocando a las poblaciones locales a celebrar un festival en honor a Neptuno, y mientras estaban en plena celebraci&#243;n, R&#243;mulo dio la orden de raptar a las hijas v&#237;rgenes de los asistentes.</p><p>Ante este agravio, los pueblos de los ceninos y los cinenses le declararon de inmediato la guerra a Roma e invadieron su territorio, pero fueron derrotados y expulsados por R&#243;mulo. Luego, R&#243;mulo march&#243; contra otros de los pueblos afectados, los amtemnates y los crustuminos. Ambos pueblos fueron derrotados, con los amtemnates siendo relocalizados en Roma con el beneficio de la ciudadan&#237;a, y los crustuminos teniendo que recibir una colonia romana y a su vez enviar parte de su poblaci&#243;n a Roma. Con la absorci&#243;n de estas poblaciones, Roma crec&#237;a a pasos agigantados.</p><p>Por &#250;ltimo, y luego de varios a&#241;os, vino la guerra contra los sabinos, los m&#225;s agraviados por el rapto de sus hijas. La guerra fue planeada por los sabinos, quienes lograron entrar en Roma cuando una v&#237;rgen vestal, hija de una sabina, les abri&#243; una de las puertas de la ciudadela. Los sabinos se apoderaron de esta, y los romanos, bajo el liderato de R&#243;mulo, intentaron retomarla pero terminaron siendo rechazados en un combate que se detuvo solo cuando las mujeres sabinas, viendo a sus esposos romanos y padres sabinos luchando a muerte, decidieron lanzarse en medio de la batalla para frenar la matanza. La valerosa intervenci&#243;n de las mujeres sabinas tuvo el efecto deseado y conmovi&#243; a los hombres de ambos pueblos, enlazados familiarmente a trav&#233;s de ellas, quienes dejaron de lado el combate y entraron en negociaciones. Estas culminaron con un acuerdo en el que romanos y sabinos se un&#237;an como un solo pueblo gobernado por dos reyes: el romano R&#243;mulo y el sabino Tito Tacio. </p><p>Es reci&#233;n aqu&#237;, me parece, que podemos hablar del fin del proceso &#8211;si es que tenemos que escoger uno&#8211; de la fundaci&#243;n de Roma. Es con la uni&#243;n de los romanos y los sabinos en un solo pueblo, que Roma termina de consolidarse como una ciudad-estado con todos los elementos necesarios para sustentarse en el tiempo y ante todo, imponerse a las ciudades vecinas, ahora en desventaja ante una ciudad tan populosa. Eventualmente, Tito Tacio morir&#237;a y R&#243;mulo volver&#237;a a gobernar en solitario por algunos a&#241;os hasta morir en extra&#241;as circunstancias. Lo suceder&#237;a el rey Numa Pompilio, de origen sabinio, y seg&#250;n el profesor Cornell (<em>The Begginings of Rome. Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars, </em>1995), quien podr&#237;a ser realmente el primer rey de Roma. </p><p>Este es el relato, con algunas discrepancias en ciertos temas, en que en general cre&#237;an los romanos cuando hablaban o se relacionaban con su pasado. Se puede ver que se aceptaba la idea de que Roma hab&#237;a surgido a partir de un conglomerado de fugitivos, mercenarios, esclavos y unos pocos hombres libres que debieron raptar mujeres de otros pueblos para consolidar el suyo propio. Una historia bastante particular para una ciudad que termin&#243; dominando el mundo conocido, en la que la &#233;pica del relato se entremezcla con acontecimientos y narrativas m&#225;s seculares, realistas e incluso crudas. La imagen de la Roma arcaica que nos deja Livio es la de un refugio para caudillos, mercenarios, fugitivos y esclavos que deseaban comenzar una nueva vida. As&#237; surg&#237;a Roma.</p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[2025 Catalog]]></title><description><![CDATA[Catalog of articles published in SP Historian throughout 2025.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/2025-catalog</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/2025-catalog</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 31 Dec 2025 14:11:25 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ca898260-121a-4c96-9cf3-65b74c12071f_4032x3024.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h6><a href="https://open.substack.com/pub/sebastianpanatt/p/catalogo-2025?r=4ci1kd&amp;utm_campaign=post&amp;utm_medium=web">Puedes leer este art&#237;culo en espa&#241;ol haciendo click aqu&#237;.</a></h6><p>As 2025 draws to a close, I thought it would be useful to compile a catalog where you can easily find all the articles published in <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em> throughout this intense year. If you missed any articles or there were more than one you wanted to read, you&#8217;ll find them here. Be patient, because there are no fewer than twenty-three articles published, both in English and Spanish, in addition to the new Narrative section, which has two published titles. I hope that <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em> will grow even more this coming year, always with your support!</p><p>So now we turn to you, the readers, for whom I write this. Believe me, if I didn&#8217;t have readers, an audience that is growing little by little, I wouldn&#8217;t write, and writing is something I love to do, so the first thing is to thank you for that. Your support, whether as regular readers, sharing my articles and commenting, or financially, means a lot to me. My ultimate goal here is for you to enjoy learning history, and I hope I am achieving that, or at least making progress. Let&#8217;s see what the next year has in store for us. Many thanks to all of you, followers and readers of <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em>, the driving force behind this initiative! Now, let&#8217;s get to the point of this article.</p><div><hr></div><h2><strong>SP Historian 2025 Catalog:</strong></h2><h2><strong>January</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;ba912689-971a-4bfa-9309-90de2462471a&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Alexander the Great, the famous Macedonian king, considered the greatest general of all time. His military conquests earned him an empire that stretched from Greece to northern India. To achieve what he set out to do, Alexander needed an army that was up to his standards, and the Macedonian army was. Probably the finest military force of its time, the M&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Alexandrian Tactics&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-10T15:06:56.968Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!feXe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e18d96d-9991-40dc-bd74-720ae7ea29b7_1920x1152.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/alexandrian-tactics&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:154541913,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:28,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;7710fd77-d600-48d3-afac-808245d0de65&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;In 335 BC Athens and Thebes revolted against Macedonian rule in Greece. Alexander the Great responded by mobilizing his army quickly, arriving before the walls of Thebes itself. The revolt lasted only a few weeks. The Thebans, abandoned by Athens, were powerless against the mighty Macedonian army, and with the city in his power, Alexander decreed to sel&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The destruction of Thebes&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-21T13:31:54.718Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32fE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F159796e6-b57a-45b9-a207-5c49744e3f56_1200x1200.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-destruction-of-thebes&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:155309682,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:50,&quot;comment_count&quot;:5,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;eea40800-5564-4539-a578-5f6d475f9342&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the first century B.C., maintained that the Carthaginian aristocracy had the custom of sacrificing their children in honor of Baal Hamon, whom the Greeks identified as Chronos, when the city entered times of crisis (20. 14. 4). This idea, constantly reflected in Greco-Roman literature, would endure until &#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Child sacrifices in Carthage&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-29T10:13:37.409Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XxvM!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62b467d5-9b5c-4422-957a-2275109aba24_904x1194.png&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/child-sacrifices-in-cartago&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:156000542,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:27,&quot;comment_count&quot;:14,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><h2><strong>February:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;fc987a40-00c8-4bcd-87fa-9b1f1f388c60&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Slavery in Rome implied a life of forced labor, with no power of decision in most aspects, subjected to the constant threat of reprisals and to the master's will. Undoubtedly the concept of slavery evokes above all the horrors it implies for the subjected individual, but in the Roman Empire slavery could also be expressed in many other ways. The Roman s&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;To be a slave in Rome&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-02-17T19:07:57.516Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GfME!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1061a8-2be3-429d-9094-781a768fe3db_800x594.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/to-be-a-slave-in-rome&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:157329984,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:134,&quot;comment_count&quot;:22,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>March:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;4b4dc186-59d0-4e4a-9dee-97a3ce7eb0f0&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Much has been written over the centuries about the madman Caligula. In general, the reports of the Roman historian Suetonius, who wrote a biography of the emperor, have tended to be taken as true. In it, he describes him as a monster who enjoyed incest with his sisters, enslaving Roman citizens to steal their wealth, torturing his prisoners, sexually ab&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The madness of Emperor Caligula&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-03-01T15:04:54.721Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VMkC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F589c8c4d-ab54-4dc4-a02c-ef096624dac8_1024x573.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-madness-of-emperor-caligula&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:158171744,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;4626fe7b-f49c-4876-b474-4dc1a1326e1c&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Hasdrubal the Beotarch was the last ruler of his city, in the most critical situation it was going through in its history, with a Rome that treacherously besieged Carthage in order to destroy it. Hasdrubal, initially a mediocre Carthaginian general and senator, ended up taking charge of the city's defenses, managing to resist for three long years and ev&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The last ruler of Carthage&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-03-11T10:50:46.633Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RDDZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff22f617c-d48f-4be8-a559-97d5efbed5ca_1000x724.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-last-ruler-of-carthage&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:158820506,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:9,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;78632784-91a3-4601-beab-3064c72a78be&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;When we hear or read about the history of the Greek city of Sparta, it is generally about the period known as Classical Greece, where the Spartan polis enjoyed military predominance in Greece, perhaps its greatest expression being the triumph over the Athenians in the Peloponnesian War. The short-lived Spartan dominance over Greece was challenged and ev&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Sparta after Sparta&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-03-27T18:11:00.235Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TyAn!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8e876735-38a7-441b-a488-6f33267e6252_786x520.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/sparta-after-sparta&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:160005963,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:10,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>April:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;466a94b6-486d-4d29-8247-c217eb8b0868&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Hannibal is one of the most famous generals in history, a fame he acquired largely due to his overwhelming victories on the battlefield against the Romans, the eternal rival. Trebia, Trasimeno, Cannae or Herdonia, are all battles whose epic records have survived the passage of time, immortalizing the exploits of the great Carthaginian general. So impres&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Escaping from Rome&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-04-13T19:46:43.109Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fztS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3c76a9f-b1b3-4a00-a197-5a1278610c3a_1157x1400.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/escaping-from-rome&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:161080338,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:17,&quot;comment_count&quot;:3,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;846fe064-39dd-49e7-abc1-b33fcc313562&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Those who are familiar with the history of the destruction of Carthage will surely have heard or read that the city was razed to the ground and the territory, after being flattened and leveled, was covered with salt so that nothing fertile could grow there again. An anecdotal fact that is constantly repeated, even at the educational level. The spreading&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;And there was never salt&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-04-22T12:37:33.925Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r2N-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2151087e-5476-44ce-9711-c9fd218289c8_4032x3024.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/and-there-was-never-salt&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:161856198,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:25,&quot;comment_count&quot;:10,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>May:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;78ac0c0c-e000-4082-9893-4bf36c40ba45&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;In 146 BC, after a bloody siege that lasted for three years, the Romans took and sacked Carthage. Most of its population was enslaved, the city destroyed, and the Roman Senate decreed a ban on inhabiting the place. Turned into ruins, Carthage saw its longest and darkest night, a night that lasted for a hundred years, until in 46 BC, a certain Julius Cae&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The refoundation of Carthage&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-05-03T02:19:59.292Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wWqP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd4a35cd8-466b-48af-9680-b3898e0f8459_1615x1654.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-refoundation-of-carthage&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:162725348,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:15,&quot;comment_count&quot;:6,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;44884ed3-595b-4658-92ac-8433391bdb2f&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The recording of the past is something that characterizes us as humans, from the Stone Age with geoglyphs and the transmission of legends, to the present day, with the discipline of history as an aspiring science, with all that this implies methodologically. At some point in the development of human history, humans stopped simply recording the past and &#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ancient Historiography &quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-05-18T20:27:21.721Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!As-p!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45c013df-aad5-4ddc-94a1-cfed79717a13_535x451.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/ancient-historiography&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:163870082,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:8,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>June:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;801bbe50-fc70-41f8-8ae8-d30c87a81203&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The story of the Calvary of the Son of God transformed the cross into a powerful religious symbol, but before, during and after Christ, it was widely used throughout the Mediterranean as a method of execution through prolonged torture. In Antiquity, death on the cross was conceived as one of the ultimate forms of humiliation of the individual, subjected&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Crucifixion in the Hellenistic world&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-06-05T00:14:01.169Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Jep5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc00768d6-9b55-41a6-a82b-849ad537435a_800x600.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/crucifixion-in-the-hellenistic-world&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:165232207,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:36,&quot;comment_count&quot;:13,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;43786b36-644c-4f07-ac3c-b7d895ca6fd9&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Neo-Punic is the concept used to refer to the evolution of the Punic language after the fall of Carthage, which absorbed elements from the languages of the Berber tribes and above all from Latin and the use of its characters to express itself in written form. Punic, a Phoenician dialect, was widely spoken in the western Mediterranean and especially in A&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Speaking Neo-Punic&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-06-18T15:51:17.894Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j9b4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb742e34c-dd86-444a-924f-f982df78d0eb_1200x627.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/speaking-neo-punic&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:166217756,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:18,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;e336eff3-2a60-429a-a640-5e5115cdca0b&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;On August 2, 216 BC, one of the most famous battles of Antiquity took place in southern Italy. Hannibal, with a veteran army that had already won two important victories in Italy, now faced his greatest test since the beginning of the Second Punic War: an army of 80,000 men, the largest in the history of the Roman Republic, created in order to put an en&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Narration: Cannae (#1)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-06-28T15:05:18.712Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QYJ0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F587e6711-f2a6-4bf8-8743-8b5186ed478d_730x733.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/narration-cannae-1&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;Narrative&quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167019079,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:19,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>July:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;6ab3b2ce-618a-45ff-83b2-49d373f0d266&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The consul Varro has given the order. The largest army Rome has ever raised is preparing to face the Carthaginian army commanded by Hannibal. The fields south of the Aufidus River are about to be watered with the blood of those fighting for Italy. This is the second part of the narration of the Battle of Cannae.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Narration: Cannae (#2)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-03T05:11:16.964Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Bmxx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4ebe81b7-e097-42b1-b9ce-eedf62e2c6c9_1280x895.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/narration-cannae-2&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;Narrative&quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167407593,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:18,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;2c8b5ac0-a8c2-4fc4-9928-60ae8d1d172d&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The sun's rays bathe the valleys south of the Aufidus River. The cavalry of both armies have clashed in a brutal battle that has seen the Carthaginians emerge victorious. But the main theater, the one fought by the infantry, is still undecided; many hours of battle remain, and it is here that the Romans hold the upper hand. This is the third and final part of the account of the Battle of Cannae.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Narration: Cannae (#3)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-05T16:48:47.894Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2xwk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3896594f-c0cc-43e5-856c-bff2ff64d068_736x471.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/narration-cannae-3&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;Narrative&quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167412422,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:13,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;2d690130-260e-45ca-a016-06f705c2fcd6&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Narrating Cannae, and in particular the life of Hannibal, is something I set myself as a life plan when I was no more than a naive student of history. I chose Cannae, because it is indisputably Hannibal's great work in terms of pitched battles. Never were the odds more against him, and never was he so close to ending the Roman Republic and its history as we know it. &quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Cannae (author's notes)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-07T21:11:47.994Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOe-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f4092c1-30ef-4ffd-be78-8fde4bbfdab8_1303x977.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/cannae-authors-notes&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;Narrative&quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167760819,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:14,&quot;comment_count&quot;:2,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;e9bd11eb-12a8-452c-b480-49f164b0bf8c&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The city of Lepcis Magna was an important Punic center and later one of the most important Roman ports in Africa and the Empire. Its history has gone largely unnoticed due to the peaceful character of the city, which led it to be far from the great warlike conflicts that marked the development of Antiquity. Its absence in these has led historians of all&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;An ignored history: Lepcis Magna&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-20T11:25:40.406Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Kgl2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b4a64fd-efa9-48a5-a0b3-cb38bf9a6c28_640x316.png&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/an-ignored-history-lepcis-magna&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:168769593,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:19,&quot;comment_count&quot;:1,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>August:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;72c79ebb-3407-41be-8960-57b51d59e44f&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Terence was a slave born in Africa in the first half of the 2nd century BC. Eventually bought by a senator who freed him, Terence dedicated himself to writing some of the earliest literary works in Latin. His comedies, along with those of Plautus and other playwrights and poets such as Naevius and Caecilius, helped lay the foundation for Latin literatur&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Terence, from former slave to literary figure&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-08-23T18:02:27.257Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dPA3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fadc00c8a-c340-45c3-bcbb-44f99ed46b4a_1268x972.png&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/terence-from-former-slave-to-literary&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:171754855,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>September:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;ac2b5a14-8675-411f-90da-59660a511b79&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;The Cothon, Carthage's imposing double harbor, was one of the largest in Antiquity and a symbol of the Carthaginian maritime power. With fortifications that completely surrounded it and made it impossible to see what was happening inside, it became an impregnable maritime fortress. Recognized as one of Carthage's most famous structures, it survived the &#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Cothon of Carthage&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-09-09T04:29:25.289Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Iwp1!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac6610ac-5c03-4839-9f6b-e38de8bb52f1_1920x1358.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-cothon-of-carthage&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:173153327,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:26,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;af4fcf7c-5c4d-4f40-ad05-e891ebcdf878&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;This is an exclusive preview of the new book I am working on, Xanthippus. The Spartiate of Carthage, a novel that chronicles the life of the Spartan general Xanthippus and his service to the Carthaginian republic in its first war against Rome. As a preview of my work, it is a way of thanking all the paying subscribers who have supported me in this year that I have been publishing. Let me introduce you to the Battle of Adys.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Preview: &#8220;Xanthippus. The Spartiate of Carthage&#8221;&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-09-20T03:19:58.155Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!L7ZL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd449edc7-9eb7-4944-9980-fb68b62cf31b_804x630.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/preview-xanthippus-the-spartiate&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;Narrative&quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:173998959,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>October:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;b3dd3b26-9b83-4953-b024-0bc42d362e82&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Diodorus Siculus recounts that Agathocles (361-289 BC) was a potter in his youth. His unstoppable rise took him from being a soldier in search of better fortune to becoming the visible face of a political movement in the heart of a turbulent Syracuse. His rise to power transformed him into a tyrant in the strict sense of the word. His actions and ambiti&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The life of a tyrant: Agathocles (#1)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-04T20:52:28.251Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!o7_a!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25478deb-f052-4d13-b13e-a891fed72cad_631x1009.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-life-of-a-tyrant-agathocles-1&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:175294835,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:12,&quot;comment_count&quot;:2,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;dc5d013d-01ff-4590-bf27-e02be69413b5&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;We have already seen how Agathocles, the humble potter from Thermae, became the most powerful man in Syracuse, and eventually its tyrant in 316 BC. Now, the tyrant had a whole series of challenges ahead of him to legitimize his position as ruler of Syracuse by force. Amidst the conflict between oligarchs and democrats that was ravaging Greek Sicily, the&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Life of a Tyrant: Agathocles (#2)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-11T20:57:03.038Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GW21!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3450570-4845-4b3c-b687-7a21cb2e132d_1647x1260.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-life-of-a-tyrant-agathocles-2&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:175900950,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:9,&quot;comment_count&quot;:2,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;91e799b4-3081-437d-8f94-d02c01903ef1&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;It was early 2020 when, on a trip to Rome, I came across a huge sign outside the Colosseum with the word &#8220;Carthago&#8221; written on it. That was enough to catch my attention. You can imagine my surprise when I realized that it was an exhibition of archaeological remains from Carthaginian culture in the heart of ancient Rome, inside the Colosseum. Ironic, une&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Carthage at the Colosseum&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-17T14:38:50.459Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cdev!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6322f953-c6d6-4e20-865e-bc784cb16a1c_4032x3024.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/carthage-at-the-colosseum&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:176385427,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:17,&quot;comment_count&quot;:5,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>November:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;0100cb5d-55d8-4abb-9f94-e7261396fcc3&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;It was the year 255 BC when the consul Marcus Atilius Regulus, in the midst of the First Punic War, was defeated by the Carthaginians in Africa and taken prisoner at the Battle of the Plains of the Bagradas. His captivity and subsequent death in Carthage gave rise to all kinds of legends in the Roman world that highlighted the cruelty of the Carthaginia&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Another martyr?&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-11-04T13:09:20.937Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5pDi!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F995ce018-428a-41cf-a84b-e465447c21fa_932x744.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/another-martyr&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:177930579,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:11,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;dc0271a0-76ae-414a-95e4-3c2486c9069c&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;In 535 AD, the Roman emperor Justinian began the reconquest of Italy under the leadership of his general Belisarius. The Italians, who had been under Ostrogothic rule for more than four decades, did not welcome the incursion of the imperial armies into the peninsula, even though their objective was to reintegrate them into the imperial domains. Italy, t&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Invading Liberators &quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-11-24T03:22:45.719Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!45Xz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6966af45-820f-4fc4-bb8a-a7b4d98791e0_1599x1062.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-invading-liberators&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:179747782,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:19,&quot;comment_count&quot;:9,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>December:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;55a6973f-035c-47a3-9c4c-a88aab888d1e&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;In 146 BC, after a grueling three-year siege, the Roman army finally conquered Carthage. The approximately fifty thousand surviving Carthaginians took refuge in Byrsa, the heart of the city, awaiting the final outcome. Scipio Aemilianus, the Roman consul, spared their lives in exchange for slavery and, in tears, carried out the Roman senate&#8217;s order: to &#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The destruction of Carthage&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-12-11T02:29:38.490Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3_aA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b4f0ca6-9a3b-475c-bfa0-724f6560350a_1432x1199.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-destruction-of-carthage&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:181294073,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:15,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;6b7c5425-d679-4dec-83de-1289a5309ed7&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;In 146 BC, the Roman Senate gave the order to destroy Carthage, the most important Phoenician city in the western Mediterranean. With this, Carthage disappeared as a city, civic identity, and independent political entity, but did the Carthaginians cease to exist with the disappearance of their city? This is a very pertinent question, which we will explore further below, as it allows us to approach the idea of a Carthaginian genocide, a hypothesis proposed by some modern scholars.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;The Carthaginian genocide?&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-12-26T16:23:37.964Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hqBh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe817e154-17b3-48be-8891-4ac1b36f7a71_1280x909.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/the-carthaginian-genocide&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:null,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:182551868,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p>My final words, from <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em>, are to reiterate my gratitude for your support, and to wish you all a very happy New Year.</p><p><em>Sebasti&#225;n Panatt</em></p><div><hr></div><p><em>Thank you for reading this article. If you are not subscribed and are interested in my content, I invite you to do so. You will be supporting my work and motivating me to keep writing!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Catálogo 2025]]></title><description><![CDATA[Cat&#225;logo de los art&#237;culos publicados en SP Historian a lo largo del a&#241;o 2025.]]></description><link>https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/catalogo-2025</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/catalogo-2025</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Sebastián Panatt]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 31 Dec 2025 14:09:54 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2fad47d6-fea9-43e9-b1c9-a30d60a2a415_4032x3024.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Se acaba este a&#241;o 2025 y me pareci&#243; &#250;til elaborar un cat&#225;logo en que se puedan encontrar f&#225;cilmente todos los art&#237;culos publicados en <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em> a lo largo de este intenso a&#241;o. Si se le pas&#243; alguno o m&#225;s de un art&#237;culo con el que qued&#243; ganas de leer, aqu&#237; lo encontrar&#225;. Paciencia, porque son nada m&#225;s ni menos que veintitr&#233;s art&#237;culos publicados, tanto en ingl&#233;s como en espa&#241;ol, a lo que se suma la nueva &#225;rea de Narrativa, en la que hay dos t&#237;tulos publicaodos. Espero que este a&#241;o que viene <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em> crezca aun m&#225;s &#161;siempre con su apoyo!</p><p>As&#237; que ahora vamos a ustedes, los lectores, para quienes escribo esto. Cr&#233;anme que si no tuviese lectores, un p&#250;blico que crece de a poquito, no escribir&#237;a, y escribir es algo que me encanta hacer, as&#237; que lo primero es darle las gracias a ustedes por eso. Su apoyo, ya sea como lectores asiduos, compartiendo mis art&#237;culos y comentando, o financiero, significa mucho para m&#237;. Mi objetivo &#250;ltimo aqu&#237; es que ustedes disfruten aprendiendo historia, y espero estar logrando, o al menos progresando. Veamos que nos depara el pr&#243;ximo a&#241;o. &#161;Muchas gracias a todos ustedes, seguidores y lectores de SP Historian, el motor de esta iniciativa! Ahora, a lo que nos convoca este art&#237;culo.</p><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Cat&#225;logo SP Historian 2025:</strong></h2><h2><strong>Enero</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;0fcd4e82-0ded-4dba-8f24-2f358ea901b0&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Alejandro Magno, el famoso rey macedonio, considerado como el general m&#225;s grande de todos los tiempos. Sus conquistas militares le valieron forjar un imperio que se extendi&#243; desde Grecia hasta el norte de la India. Para lograr lo que se propuso, Alejandro necesitaba un ej&#233;rcito que estuviese a su altura, y el ej&#233;rcito macedonio lo estaba. Probablemente &#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;T&#225;cticas alejandrinas&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-10T15:05:09.410Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!feXe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3e18d96d-9991-40dc-bd74-720ae7ea29b7_1920x1152.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/tacticas-alejandrinas&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:154371345,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;606abe68-f604-4906-967b-4452fb443132&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;En el 335 a. C. Atenas y Tebas se sublevaron contra el dominio macedonio en Grecia. Alejandro Magno respondi&#243; movilizando su ej&#233;rcito con rapidez, llegando ante los muros de la propia Tebas. La revuelta dur&#243; pocas semanas. Los tebanos, abandonados por Atenas, no pudieron contra el poderoso ej&#233;rcito macedonio, y con la ciudad en su poder, Alejandro decr&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La destrucci&#243;n de Tebas&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-21T13:30:23.258Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!32fE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F159796e6-b57a-45b9-a207-5c49744e3f56_1200x1200.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-destruccion-de-tebas&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:155055993,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:12,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;a642dca5-bc84-4177-8ad2-d0aa06297443&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;El historiador griego Diodoro S&#237;culo, escribiendo en el siglo I a. C. sostuvo que la aristocracia cartaginesa ten&#237;a como costumbre sacrificar a sus hijos en honor a Baal Hamon, a quienes los griegos identificaban como Cronos, cuando la ciudad entraba en tiempos de crisis (20. 14. 4). Esta idea, reflejada constantamente en la literatura greco-romana, per&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Sacrificios de ni&#241;os en Cartago&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-01-29T10:12:23.592Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XxvM!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F62b467d5-9b5c-4422-957a-2275109aba24_904x1194.png&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/sacrificios-de-ninos-en-cartago&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:155814559,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:8,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Febrero:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;7c3ae125-cf18-44c6-8173-189015b316df&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;La esclavitud en Roma implicaba una vida de trabajo forzoso, sin poder de desici&#243;n en la mayor&#237;a de los aspectos, sometida a la constante amenaza de represalias y a la voluntad del amo. Sin duda el concepto de esclavitud evoca ante todo los horrores que esta implica para el individuo sometido, pero en el Imperio romano la esclavitud tambi&#233;n se pod&#237;a exp&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Ser un esclavo en Roma&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-02-17T19:06:20.516Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GfME!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1061a8-2be3-429d-9094-781a768fe3db_800x594.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/ser-un-esclavo-en-roma&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:157178405,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:8,&quot;comment_count&quot;:1,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Marzo:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;f3b9102b-20eb-4bb0-b137-830710861148&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Es mucho lo que se ha escrito a lo largo de los siglos sobre el loco de Cal&#237;gula. En general, se ha tendido a tomar por ciertos los reportes del historiador romano Suetonio, quien redact&#243; una biograf&#237;a del emperador. En esta, lo describe como un monstruo que disfrutaba del incesto con sus hermanas, esclavizar a ciudadanos romanos para robarles su patrim&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La locura del emperador Cal&#237;gula&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-03-01T15:03:34.546Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VMkC!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F589c8c4d-ab54-4dc4-a02c-ef096624dac8_1024x573.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-locura-del-emperador-caligula&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:158013382,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;707f7b8a-73c4-4555-9031-d198b6f55c37&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Asdr&#250;bal el Beotarca fue el &#250;ltimo gobernante de su ciudad, en la situaci&#243;n m&#225;s cr&#237;tica que atravesaba en su historia, con una Roma que asedi&#243; a traici&#243;n Cartago con el fin de destruirla. Asdr&#250;bal, inicialmente un mediocre general y senador cartagin&#233;s, termin&#243; haci&#233;ndose cargo de las defensas de la ciudad, arregl&#225;ndoselas para resistir por tres largos a&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;El &#250;ltimo gobernante de Cartago&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-03-11T10:49:22.440Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RDDZ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff22f617c-d48f-4be8-a559-97d5efbed5ca_1000x724.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/el-ultimo-gobernante-de-cartago&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:158489733,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;b95915e0-aa3b-4542-bb82-50fdbff3cdff&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Cuando escuchamos o leemos sobre la historia de la ciudad griega de Esparta, en general es sobre el per&#237;odo denominado como Grecia cl&#225;sica, donde la polis espartana goz&#243; del predominio militar en Grecia, siendo quiz&#225;s su mayor expresi&#243;n el triunfo sobre los atenienses en la Guerra del Peloponeso. El ef&#237;mero dominio espartano sobre Grecia fue cuestionado&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Esparta despu&#233;s de Esparta&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-03-27T18:09:47.147Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!TyAn!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F8e876735-38a7-441b-a488-6f33267e6252_786x520.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/esparta-despues-de-esparta&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:159805111,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Abril:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;60de6b61-3b62-4658-b0f0-e60d41dccf04&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;An&#237;bal es uno de los generales m&#225;s famosos de la Historia, fama que adquiri&#243; en gran medida debido a sus aplastantes victorias en el campo de batalla contra los romanos, el eterno rival. Trebia, Trasimeno, Cannae o Herdonia, son todas batallas cuyos &#233;picos registros han sobrevivido al paso del tiempo, inmortalizando las haza&#241;as del gran general cartagin&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Escapando de Roma&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-04-13T19:45:23.835Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fztS!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd3c76a9f-b1b3-4a00-a197-5a1278610c3a_1157x1400.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/escapando-de-roma&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:160921627,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;eafa2e1c-24bc-4992-a38d-849429d53003&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Quienes est&#225;n familiarizados con la historia de la destrucci&#243;n de Cartago, seguramente habr&#225;n escuchado o le&#237;do que la ciudad fue arrasada hasta sus cimientos y el territorio, luego de haber sido aplanado y nivelado, fue cubierto con sal para que nada f&#233;rtil pudiera volver a crecer ah&#237;. Un dato anecd&#243;tico que se repite de forma reiterada, incluso a nive&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Y nunca hubo sal &quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-04-22T12:36:16.285Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!r2N-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2151087e-5476-44ce-9711-c9fd218289c8_4032x3024.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/y-nunca-hubo-sal&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:161791844,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:2,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Mayo:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;6d9a4b84-0f94-44fe-ac75-5a84f5bfeda8&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;En el 146 a. C., y luego de un cruento asedio que se prolong&#243; por tres a&#241;os, los romanos tomaron y saquearon Cartago. La mayor parte de su poblaci&#243;n fue esclavizada, la ciudad destruida, y el senado romano decret&#243; una prohibici&#243;n de habitar el lugar. Convertida en ruinas, Cartago vio su noche m&#225;s larga y oscura, una noche que dur&#243; por cien a&#241;os, hasta q&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La refundaci&#243;n de Cartago&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-05-03T02:18:53.013Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wWqP!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd4a35cd8-466b-48af-9680-b3898e0f8459_1615x1654.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-refundacion-de-cartago&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:162508357,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;88d3200a-cb3d-4960-bc57-f07e50e4f906&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;El registro del pasado es algo que nos caracteriza como humanos, desde la Edad de Piedra con geoglifos y la transmisi&#243;n de leyendas, hasta la actualidad, con la disciplina hist&#243;rica como una aspirante a la ciencia, con todo lo que eso implica metodol&#243;gicamente. En alg&#250;n momento del desarrollo de la historia humana, los humanos dejaron de simplemente reg&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Historiograf&#237;a Antigua &quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-05-18T20:26:16.208Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!As-p!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F45c013df-aad5-4ddc-94a1-cfed79717a13_535x451.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/historiografia-antigua&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:163436951,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:4,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Junio:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;2502634c-a512-4053-a908-6ce04a015ce2&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;La historia del calvario del Hijo de Dios transform&#243; la cruz en un poderoso s&#237;mbolo religioso, pero antes, durante y despu&#233;s de Cristo, esta fue ampliamente utilizada a lo largo del Mediterr&#225;neo como un m&#233;todo de ejecuci&#243;n a trav&#233;s de la tortura prolongada. En la Antig&#252;edad, la muerte en la cruz era concebida como una de las m&#225;ximas formas de humillaci&#243;&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Crucifixi&#243;n en el mundo helen&#237;stico&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-06-05T00:12:29.840Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Jep5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc00768d6-9b55-41a6-a82b-849ad537435a_800x600.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/crucifixion-en-el-mundo-helenistico&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:164781361,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:4,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;f46290b5-38a5-4682-9786-7f1c56177d83&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Neo-p&#250;nico es el concepto utilizado para referirse a la evoluci&#243;ndel idioma p&#250;nico luego de la ca&#237;da de Cartago, el cual fue absorviendo elementos de los idiomes de las tribus bereberes y sobre todo del lat&#237;n y la utilizaci&#243;n de sus caracteres para expresarse de forma escrita. El p&#250;nico, un dialecto fenicio, era ampliamente hablado en el Mediterr&#225;neo oc&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Hablando neo-p&#250;nico&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-06-18T15:50:01.170Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!j9b4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb742e34c-dd86-444a-924f-f982df78d0eb_1200x627.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/hablando-neo-punico&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:166063575,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:4,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;ab5155d6-801d-4308-8d7f-09777c053c84&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;El 2 de agosto del 216 a. C. se produjo en el sur de Italia una de las batallas m&#225;s famosas de la Antig&#252;edad. An&#237;bal, con un ej&#233;rcito veterano que ya hab&#237;a conseguido dos importantes victorias en Italia, ahora se enfrentaba a su prueba m&#225;s grande desde el inicio de la Segunda Guerra P&#250;nica: un ej&#233;rcito de 80 mil hombres, el m&#225;s grande en la histora de l&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Narraci&#243;n: Cannae (#1)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-06-28T15:03:00.669Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QYJ0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F587e6711-f2a6-4bf8-8743-8b5186ed478d_730x733.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/narracion-cannae-1&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:166301385,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:4,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Julio:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;daa74b20-3e20-4118-b85a-0497a5c2f2a5&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;El c&#243;nsul Varr&#243;n ha dado la orden. El ej&#233;rcito m&#225;s grande que Roma a levantado, se dispone a dar batalla al ej&#233;rcito cartagin&#233;s comandado por An&#237;bal. Los campos que se extienden hacia el sur del r&#237;o Aufido estan a punto de ser regados con la sangre de quienes se disputan Italia. Esta es la segunda parte de la narraci&#243;n de la batalla de Cannae.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Narraci&#243;n: Cannae (#2)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-03T05:09:34.820Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Bmxx!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4ebe81b7-e097-42b1-b9ce-eedf62e2c6c9_1280x895.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/narracion-cannae-2&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167298597,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:3,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;3a4dfdf2-73bb-4713-bb39-c3328d1c9542&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Los rayos del sol ba&#241;an las valles al sur del r&#237;o Aufido. Las caballer&#237;as de ambos ej&#233;rcitos se han enfrentado en un brutal combate que ha visto salir a los cartagineses como victoriosos. Pero el teatro principal, el que lucha la infanter&#237;a, todav&#237;a no est&#225; decidido, quedan muchas horas de batalla, y es ah&#237; donde los romanos llevan la delantera. Esta es la tercera y &#250;ltima parte de la narraci&#243;n de la batalla de Cannae.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Narraci&#243;n: Cannae (#3)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-05T16:46:32.063Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!2xwk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3896594f-c0cc-43e5-856c-bff2ff64d068_736x471.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/narracion-cannae-3&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167299762,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:3,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;58ffe062-831c-4b55-a840-f8f143590f62&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Narrar Cannae, y en particular la vida de An&#237;bal, es algo que me propuse como plan de vida cuando no era m&#225;s que un ingenuo estudiante de historia. Escog&#237; Cannae, porque es indiscutiblemente la gran obra de An&#237;bal en t&#233;rminos de batallas campales. Nunca las posibilidades estuvieron m&#225;s en su contra, y nunca estuvo tan cerca de acabar con la Rep&#250;blica romana y su historia como la conocemos. &quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Cannae (notas de autor)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-07T21:10:00.784Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!KOe-!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f4092c1-30ef-4ffd-be78-8fde4bbfdab8_1303x977.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/cannae-notas-de-autor&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:167569426,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:5,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;0c3adc74-d249-4371-ba87-fe37b56bf2dd&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;La ciudad de Leptis Magna fue un importante centro p&#250;nico y posteriormente uno de los puertos romanos m&#225;s importantes en &#193;frica y en el Imperio. Su historia ha pasado desapercibida en gran medida al car&#225;cter pac&#237;fico de la ciudad, lo que la llev&#243; a estar alejada de los grandes conflictos b&#233;licos que marcaron el desarrollo de la Antig&#252;edad. Su ausencia e&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Una historia ignorada: Leptis Magna&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-07-20T11:24:17.834Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Kgl2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2b4a64fd-efa9-48a5-a0b3-cb38bf9a6c28_640x316.png&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/una-historia-ignorada-leptis-magna&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:168264300,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:4,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Agosto:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;e19628d6-06c1-4ad3-a215-9fffc3fa0bfa&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Terencio fue un esclavo nacido en &#193;frica en la primera mitad del siglo II a. C. Eventualmente comprado por un senador que lo liber&#243;, Terencio se dedic&#243; a escribir algunas de las primeras obras literarias en lat&#237;n. Sus comedias, junto a las de Plauto y otros comedi&#243;grafos y poetas como Nevio y Cecilio, ayudaron a cimentar las bases para la literatura lat&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Terencio, de antiguo esclavo a figura literaria&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-08-23T18:00:54.052Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dPA3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fadc00c8a-c340-45c3-bcbb-44f99ed46b4a_1268x972.png&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/terencio-de-antiguo-esclavo-a-figura&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:171119751,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:4,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Septiembre:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;d6f1b36e-ed90-4ba6-87aa-85e550e9fcdc&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;El Cothon, el imponente doble puerto de Cartago, fue uno de los m&#225;s grandes de la Antig&#252;edad y un s&#237;mbolo del poder&#237;o mar&#237;timo cartagin&#233;s. Con fortificaciones que lo cercaban por completo y hac&#237;an imposible ver qu&#233; suced&#237;a por dentro, lo convert&#237;an en s&#237; en una fortaleza mar&#237;tima inexpugnable. Reconocida como una de las estructuras m&#225;s famosas de Cartag&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;El Cothon de Cartago&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-09-09T04:27:36.004Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Iwp1!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac6610ac-5c03-4839-9f6b-e38de8bb52f1_1920x1358.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/el-cothon-de-cartago&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:172385611,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:6,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;1102231a-f0ce-4b92-859e-e8d293b1bec1&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Este es un adelanto exclusivo del nuevo libro en que estoy trabajando, Jantipo. El espartiata de Cartago, una novela que narra la vida del general espartano Jantipo y su servicio a la rep&#250;blica cartaginesa en su primera guerra contra Roma. Como adelanto de mi trabajo, es una forma de agradecer a todos los suscriptores de pago que me han apoyado en este a&#241;o que ya llevo publicando. Les presento la batalla de Ad&#237;s.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Adelanto: \&quot;Jantipo. El espartiata de Cartago\&quot;&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-09-20T03:18:37.404Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!L7ZL!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd449edc7-9eb7-4944-9980-fb68b62cf31b_804x630.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/adelanto-jantipo-el-espartiata-de&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:173917251,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:3,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Octubre:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;0208c921-3261-42cb-8747-91449ce60b43&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Diodoro S&#237;culo cuenta que Agatocles (361-289 a. C.) fue un alfarero en su juventud. Su imparable ascenso lo llev&#243; de ser un soldado en busca de mejor fortuna, a transformarse en la cara visible de un movimiento pol&#237;tico en el coraz&#243;n de una convulsionada Siracusa. Su llegada al poder lo transform&#243; en un tirano en el sentido estricto de la palabra. Sus a&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La vida de un tirano: Agatocles (#1)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-04T20:51:08.431Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!o7_a!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F25478deb-f052-4d13-b13e-a891fed72cad_631x1009.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-vida-de-un-tirano-agatocles-1&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:174986242,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:7,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;fef26de0-bcf1-4c96-89e9-23203df8c8d1&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Ya hemos visto como Agatocles, el humilde alfarero de Terma, se convirti&#243; en el hombre m&#225;s poderoso de Siracusa, y eventualmente en su tirano en el 316 a. C. Ahora, el tirano ten&#237;a toda una ser&#237;e de desaf&#237;os por delante para legitimar por la fuerza su posici&#243;n como gobernante de Siracusa. En medio del conflicto entre oligarcas y dem&#243;cratas que azotaba l&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La vida de un tirano: Agatocles (#2)&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-11T20:55:56.450Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!GW21!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe3450570-4845-4b3c-b687-7a21cb2e132d_1647x1260.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-vida-de-un-tirano-agatocles-2&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:175271190,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;a6dbfde1-091a-4976-9fb4-add19c6cd7b0&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Era inicios del 2020 cuando, en un viaje a Roma me encontr&#233;, fuera del Coliseo, un enorme cartel con la palabra &#8220;Carthago&#8221; escrita. Suficiente para que llamase mi atenci&#243;n. Comprender&#225;n mi asombro cuando me di cuenta de que se trataba de una exhibici&#243;n de restos arqueol&#243;gicos de la cultura cartaginesa en el coraz&#243;n de la antigua Roma, en el interior del&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Cartago en el Coliseo&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-10-17T14:37:24.645Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!cdev!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6322f953-c6d6-4e20-865e-bc784cb16a1c_4032x3024.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/cartago-en-el-coliseo&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:176200550,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:3,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Noviembre:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;6fc774a8-a2cf-4719-9356-764f2cf6cdd1&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;Corr&#237;a el a&#241;o 255 a. C. cuando el c&#243;nsul Marco Atilio R&#233;gulo, en plena Primera Guerra P&#250;nica, fue derrotado por los cartagineses en &#193;frica y hecho prisionero en la batalla de los Llanos del Bagradas. Su cautiverio y posterior muerte en Cartago dio paso a todo tipo de leyendas en el mundo romano que destacaban la crueldad de los cartagineses a la hora de&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&#191;Otro martir?&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-11-04T13:08:08.502Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!5pDi!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F995ce018-428a-41cf-a84b-e465447c21fa_932x744.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/otro-martir&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:177068861,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:3,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;a75751f5-6132-4862-ab35-5e2b4874ea94&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;En el 535 d. C. el emperador romano Justiniano inici&#243; la reconquista de Italia bajo la direcci&#243;n de su general Belisario. Los italianos, que llevaban m&#225;s de cuatro d&#233;cadas bajo dominio ostrogodo, no vieron con buenos ojos la incursi&#243;n de los ej&#233;rcitos imperiales en la pen&#237;nsula, aun cuando el objetivo de estos fuese reintegrarlos a los dominios imperial&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Los libertadores invasores &quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-11-24T03:20:55.201Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!45Xz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6966af45-820f-4fc4-bb8a-a7b4d98791e0_1599x1062.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/los-libertadores-invasores&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:178948190,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><h2><strong>Diciembre:</strong></h2><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;69ad1738-1332-4ec8-95c6-f579cdd9add5&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;En el 146 a. C. y luego de un duro asedio de tres a&#241;os, el ej&#233;rcito romano finalmente logr&#243; conquistar Cartago. Los cerca de cincuenta mil cartagineses sobrevivientes se refugiaron en Byrsa, el coraz&#243;n de la ciudad, a la espera del desenlace final. Escipi&#243;n Emiliano, el c&#243;nsul romano, les perdon&#243; la vida a cambio de la esclavitud y entre l&#225;grimas cumpli&#8230;&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;La destrucci&#243;n de Cartago&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-12-11T02:28:19.643Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3_aA!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4b4f0ca6-9a3b-475c-bfa0-724f6560350a_1432x1199.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/la-destruccion-de-cartago&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:181092950,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div class="digest-post-embed" data-attrs="{&quot;nodeId&quot;:&quot;5770bfbd-c845-430d-b580-d5b2f8581435&quot;,&quot;caption&quot;:&quot;El 146 a. C. el senado romano dio la orden de destruir Cartago, la ciudad fenicia m&#225;s importante del Mediterr&#225;neo occidental. Con esto, Cartago desapareci&#243; como ciudad, identidad c&#237;vica, y entidad pol&#237;tica independiente, pero &#191;dejaron de existir los cartagineses con la desaparici&#243;n de su ciudad? Esa es una pregunta muy pertinente, y que vamos a desarrollar m&#225;s adelante, pues permite aproximarnos a la idea de un genocidio cartagin&#233;s, una hip&#243;tesis propuesta por algunos acad&#233;micos modernos.&quot;,&quot;cta&quot;:&quot;Read full story&quot;,&quot;showBylines&quot;:true,&quot;showDescription&quot;:true,&quot;showImage&quot;:true,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;md&quot;,&quot;isEditorNode&quot;:true,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&#191;El genocidio cartagin&#233;s?&quot;,&quot;publishedBylines&quot;:[{&quot;id&quot;:262861933,&quot;name&quot;:&quot;Sebasti&#225;n Panatt&quot;,&quot;bio&quot;:&quot;Historian and writer. Historiador y escritor. &quot;,&quot;photo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9828543c-fa99-4a42-87df-58a1581543cc_960x720.jpeg&quot;,&quot;is_guest&quot;:false,&quot;bestseller_tier&quot;:null}],&quot;post_date&quot;:&quot;2025-12-26T16:22:00.433Z&quot;,&quot;cover_image&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hqBh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe817e154-17b3-48be-8891-4ac1b36f7a71_1280x909.jpeg&quot;,&quot;cover_image_alt&quot;:null,&quot;canonical_url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/p/el-genocidio-cartagines&quot;,&quot;section_name&quot;:&quot;En espa&#241;ol &quot;,&quot;video_upload_id&quot;:null,&quot;id&quot;:181750296,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;newsletter&quot;,&quot;reaction_count&quot;:2,&quot;comment_count&quot;:0,&quot;publication_id&quot;:2978102,&quot;publication_name&quot;:&quot;SP Historian &quot;,&quot;publication_logo_url&quot;:&quot;https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dTiI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe46b72fa-55cb-44a3-a6c7-60c73e5da40d_204x204.png&quot;,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;youtube_url&quot;:null,&quot;show_links&quot;:null,&quot;feed_url&quot;:null}"></div><div><hr></div><p>Mis &#250;ltimas palabras, desde <em><strong>SP Historian</strong></em>, reiterar el agradecimiento por su apoyo, y que sea un muy buen fin de a&#241;o para todos ustedes.</p><p><em>Sebasti&#225;n Panatt</em></p><div><hr></div><p><em>Gracias por leer este art&#237;culo. Si no est&#225;s suscrito y te interesa mi contenido, te invito a que lo hagas. &#161;Apoyar&#225;s mi trabajo y me motivar&#225;s a seguir escribiendo!</em></p><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe now&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://sebastianpanatt.substack.com/subscribe?"><span>Subscribe now</span></a></p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>